What is a monopoly Essay Example for Free

What is a monopoly Essay Monopoly is at the opposite end of the spectrum of market models from perfect competition. A monopoly firm has no rivals. It is the only firm in its industry. There are no close substitutes for the good or service a monopoly produces. Not only does a monopoly firm have the market to itself, but it also need not worry about other firms entering. In the case of monopoly, entry by potential rivals is prohibitively difficult. A monopoly does not take the market price as given; it determines its own price. It selects from its demand curve the price that corresponds to the quantity the firm has chosen to produce in order to earn the maximum profit possible. In assuming there is one firm in a market, we assume there are no other firms producing goods or services that could be considered part of the same market as that of the monopoly firm. The result is a model that gives us important insights into the nature of the choices of firms and their impact on the economy. There are some Advantages of a Monopoly. The Monopolies avoids duplications and hence wastage of resources. Enjoys economics of scale, due to it being the only supplier of the product or service in the market, makes many profits and be used for research and development to maintain their status as a monopoly. They also use price discrimination to benefit the weaker economic section of society. To avoid competition, they can afford to invest in the latest technology and machinery. There are some Disadvantages of a Monopoly. Monopolies have poor levels of service, there is no consumer sovereignty, the consumers are charged high prices for such low quality goods, and lack of competition could lead to low quality goods, as well as out dated goods. First off, any market type can see super normal profits in the short-run. What is more important is what happens in the end. Pure monopolies are not the only monopoly that can make profits. Natural Monopoly or a price discriminating monopoly can make profits as well. The only difference between them is â€Å"why† they are monopolies to begin with. Oligopolies are not monopolies, although they do tend to make above normal profits. Monopolistic competition does not yield these types of profits in the end. Economic profit goes to zero here in the end because there is a lack of barriers here to prevent competition from entering.

The Nursing Shortage and the Nursing Work Environment Essay Example for Free

The Nursing Shortage and the Nursing Work Environment Essay 1. Introduction 1.1 Nursing as challenging profession: significant physical and psychological demands on nurses of all levels 1.2 Qualified nurses as the core key to success in the delivery of healthcare services 1.3 Qualified nursing staff, hospitals, clinics, nursing homes, and other essential healthcare services as contribution to modern world Problem Statement 2.1 The current situation with shortage of qualified nurses in the USA 2.2 The year of 2004: the positive shifts in dealing with nursing shortage 2.3 Population aging and retiring nurses as the main reason of severe nursing shortage Research Question 3.1 The impact of job-related stress on health care organizations and qualified nurses 3.2 Measures to be taken to alleviate job-related stress for nurses 3.3 Reduction of job-related stress as the solution to nursing shortage Research Hypotheses 4.1 Hypothesis 1: Nurses will indicate that they experience job-related stress. 4.2 Hypothesis 2: Job-related stress is a factor in a nurses decision to leave nursing. 4.3 Hypothesis 3: Nurses who have learned to manage their stress will be more likely to continue their careers. Literature Review Job-related stress may have serious implications for patient safety. Increased patient loads, for example, have been associated with elevated stress levels, the increased likelihood of an accident, and a greater risk of the nurse being involved in a medical malpractice lawsuit (Miller, 2004). One study found that 79% of RNs believed that the shortage of qualified nurses has already affected the quality of patient care (Buerhaus,   Donelan,   Ulrich,   Linda Norman,   et al, 2005). Although some studies have found that stress levels may be affected by the mode of nursing, other research has indicated similar levels of stress in functional nursing, team nursing, and primary nursing settings (Mà ¤kinen, Kivimà ¤ki, Elovainio, Virtanen, Bond, 2003). Sources of Stress Stress in nursing comes from physical and mental exertion while working with patients and the emotional stress that comes from dealing with injured, sick, and dying people. Job stress may also affected by staff reductions, especially if those reductions result in increased responsibilities for the remaining staff members (Hertting, Nilsson, Theorell, Larsson, 2004, p. 148). The long-term effects of staff reductions include feelings of distrust towards the employer; (2) concurrent demands and challenges; (3) professional ambiguity; (4) unmet desires for collaboration with other professionals; and (5) efforts to gain control (Hertting, Nilsson, Theorell, Larsson, p. 148) For many nurses, some job-related stress may come from internal sources. Antai-Otong (2001) observed that one pervasive cause of stress among nurses is the feeling that nurses must do everything for everyone all of the time and be perfect while doing it. These unrealistic expectations for perfection may lead to chronic anger, hostility, or repressed aggression, especially if the individual lacks sufficient coping skills to address these emotions (Antai-Otong). To cope with this stress, Antai-Otong recommended that nurses receive training in conflict management, anger management, self-renewal techniques, assertive communication, and other forms of creative stress management. Finally, stress also appears to be affected by age and experience. In studies comparing stress and job satisfaction of older nurses with that of younger nurses, older nurses with more years experience showed less stress and reported more positive experiences as a nurse than their younger counterparts (Ernst, Messmer, Franco, Gonzalez, 2004). Younger nurses reported concerns over compensation, workload, and lack of recognition (Ernst, et al). Ernst, et al., (p. 222) speculated that older nurses had less reason to be worried about income than their younger counterparts because the older nurses were paid more. They also speculated that the expectations and goals of the nurses in the study had become more realistic as they matured, resulting in greater job satisfaction (Ernst, et al., p. 225). Providing Ways to Improve Retention Incentives may be used to motivate nurses to improve their performance or to stay with an employer. Incentives do not necessarily have to be monetary. In some cases, non-monetary incentives such as the opportunity to work in a positive work environment may outweigh relatively small financial incentives. Other incentives that may be used to encourage nurses to stay are educational opportunities, flexible scheduling, health and safety considerations, and the nature of the overall organizational culture (Cohen, 2006). Many nurses are concerned with the balance of their professional and personal responsibilities. Quality of work life (QWL) has been defined as the balance between the individuals professional responsibilities and personal life (Ming-Yi Kernohan, 2006). QWL has been linked to job satisfaction and improved retention. Factors that affect the QWL of nurses include socioeconomic factors, demographic characteristics of the individual nurse (e.g., age, marital status, and other personal characteristics), organizational aspects, work aspects, human relation aspects, and the opportunity for self-actualization through nursing (Ming-Yi Kernohan). Of these, the individuals demographic characteristics and the socioeconomic status of the health care facility and the surrounding area are beyond the control of the organization. Other factors, such as providing opportunities for self-actualization, may be affected by organizational policies but are not exclusively within the domain of the organization. The remaining factors – organizational aspects, work aspects, and human relations aspects – are within the control of the organization. Organizations that wish to improve their retention rates for high-performing nurses may wish to examine how these factors can be adjusted to improve the QWL of nurses working within the organization. Lambert, Lambert, and Yamase (2004) noted that stress is often associated with uncertainty and a lack of information. Providing nurses with information, training, and continuing education can help alleviate these feelings and may help to reduce the overall levels of stress. Lambert, at al. also recommends exercise, physical exertion, and expressing feelings to an inanimate object as appropriate stress-reduction techniques. Environmental changes, such as brightening the environment with flowers and other aesthetically appealing items, may also help reduce the stress levels in the workplace (Lamber, et al.). Finally, Lambert, et al. suggested searching for any possible philosophical or spiritual implications that might help the individual to understand and to cope with the stresses that come along with patient care. Conclusion There is a strong reciprocal relationship between job stress and nurse retention. As nurses within a given facility begin to experience increased stress, the likelihood that some will quit or look for a job elsewhere appears to increase. Consequently, the work loads of the remaining nurses increase, which ratchets up the stress levels, resulting in more nurses leaving the organization. This cycle is not limited to organizations, but also appears to occur within the nursing profession. References Antai-Otong, D. (2001). Creative Stress-Management Techniques For Self-Renewal. Dermatology Nursing, 13, 1, 31-37. Retrieved July 27, 2007, from Academic Search Premier Database. Beaudoin, L., Edgar, L. (2003). Hassles: Their Importance to Nurses Quality of Work Life.   Nursing Economic$, 21, 3, 106-114. Retrieved July 26, 2007, from Academic Search Premier Database. Buerhaus, P., Donelan, K., Ulrich, B., Norman, L., Williams, M., Dittus, R. (2005). Hospital RNs and CNOs Perceptions of the Impact of the Nursing Shortage on the Quality of Care. Nursing Economics, 23, 5, 214-221. Retrieved July 27, 2007, from ProQuest Database Cohen, J. (2006). The Aging Nursing Workforce: How to Retain Experienced Nurses. Journal of Healthcare Management, 51, 4, 233-245. Retrieved July 27, 2007, from Academic Search Premier. Ernst, M., Messmer, P., Franco, M., Gonzalez, J. (2004). Nurses Job Satisfaction, Stress, and Recognition in a Pediatric Setting. Pediatric Nursing, 30, 3, 219-227. Retrieved July 27, 2007, from Academic Search Premier Database. Hertting, A., Nilsson, K., Theorell, T., Larsson, U. (2004). Downsizing and Reorganization: Demands, Challenges, and Ambiguity for Registered Nurses. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 45, 2, 145-154. Retrieved July 27, 2007, from Academic Search Premier Database. Lambert, V., Lambert, C., Yamase, H. (2004). Psychological Hardiness, Workplace Stress and Related Stress Reduction Strategies. Nursing Health Sciences, 5, 2, 181-183. Retrieved July 27, 2007, from Academic Search Premier Database. Mà ¤kinen, A., Kivimà ¤ki M., Elovainio, M., Virtanen, M. Bond, S. (2003). Organization of Nursing Care As a Determinant of Job Satisfaction Among Hospital Nurses.   Journal of nursing management, 11, 5, 299-306. Retrieved July 27, 2007, from Academic Search Premier Database. Miller, D. (2004). Where Have All the Nurses Gone? The Impact of the Nursing Shortage on American Healthcare. Association of Operating Room Nurses. AORN Journal, 80, 1, 141. Retrieved July 27, 2007, from ProQuest Database. Ming-Yi H., Kernohan, G. (2006). Dimensions of Hospital Nurses’ Quality of Working Life.   Journal of Advanced Nursing, 54, 1, 120-131. Retrieved July 27, 2007, from Academic Search Premier. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (2002). Projected Supply, Demand, and Shortages of Registered Nurses: 2000-2020. Department of Health and Human Services, Health Resources and Services Administration, Bureau of Health Professions, National Center for Health Workforce Analysis. Retrieved July 27, 2007, from http://www.ahca.org/research/rnsupply_demand.pdf U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (2004). The Registered Nurse Population. Findings from the March 2004 National Sample Survey of Registered Nurses. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Health Resources and Services Administration, Bureau of Health Professions. Retrieved July 27, 2007, from ftp://ftp.hrsa.gov/bhpr/workforce/0306rnss.pdf

Human Resources Reputation and Effectiveness | Analysis

Human Resources Reputation and Effectiveness | Analysis â€Å"Human Resources Reputation and Effectiveness.† SUMMARY OF THIS ARTICLE This issue of Human Resource Management Review considers the past, present, and future of HRM theory and research, exploring how these issues have considerable potential to enhance organizational efficiency and effectiveness. The compilation includes suchthemes as identifying the shortfalls of the science of HRM; predicting, understanding, and influencing the behavior of individuals in organizations; and the status of research on compensation in organizations. Organizational theorists have suggested that reputation is one of the few resources that can give firms a sustainable competitive advantage, because it is viewed as a non-tradable, non-substitutable, non-imitable, resource that can be managed. HR-firm performance linkage examines the impact of an overall set of HR practices on firm performance. This perspective advanced the literature from examining the effect of a single HR practice on performance, to examining a set of practices that work together synergistically. Another perspective explains the positive findings between HRM and firm performance by emphasizing the role HR plays in implementing strategies. To effectively implement a particular strategy, HR practices must â€Å"fit† with the strategic goals of the firm. The two studies indicate that HR reputation does have an impact on the larger overarching image of the organization. It is important to have an HR reputation of fairness, and to advertise this quality to important stakeholders. It is important to examine the more intermediate linkages between HR reputation and firm reputation and performance. It would also be interesting to examine negative HR reputation signals, and their impact on the reputation of the organization. Employees are likely to recommend an organization for employment when that organization is fully committed to work-family policies. As human capital continues to gain credence as a critical resource, organizations have viewed their HR departments as holding the key to unlocking this important resource. Thus, the power of HR has increased over the past several years, and should continue to grow. In light of the foregoing review and evaluation, and the strengths and limitations of prior work on HR reputation and effectiveness the authors have proposed some directions for theory and research in this area that they believe could result in useful and productive streams of work. â€Å"Effectiveness Index† can be one of the tools to identify firms with very progressive or reputable HR functions. Also, the need to determine what might be the underlying dimensions of HR reputation, and, if multi-dimensional, are all dimensions equally important for effectiveness, or are they differentially weighted? Firms bring about this publicity by taking non-conforming actions and proactively seeking to manage impressions to facilitate their own celebrity to the degree that celebrity increases access to critical resources such as human capital, capital markets, and raw materials, celebrity status for the firm increases a firms competitive advantage. Many firms such as Johnson Johnson, Starbucks, and Hewlett-Packard, frequently hit these lists year after year and are on several lists each year. Many of these firms are known for their ability to â€Å"partner† with the HR function to facilitate strategy execution, administrative efficiency, employee commitment, and innovation. At such an early stage in the evolution of this area of scientific inquiry, it is not clear that HR reputation necessarily has only linear relationships with outcomes; such relationships could be non-linear in form. Perhaps there is an optimal level of reputation for the HR sub-unit, and that a ‘more is always better is not accurate. AUOTHERS CONTRIBUTION IN THIS ARTICLE The author has given a brief and precise history on the evolution of Human Resource Management as an important part of any organization from a record keeping employee towards a strategy building. As the number of personal policies continued to increase during the 19th century the importance of human resources management grew as well. Author have noted down that Competitive advantages, such as organizational culture, employee morale, and worker loyalty, fostered by HRM practices, are more difficult to imitate than manufacturing processes or cost management strategies. CRITICAL REVIEW What is interesting about this information? This article revolves around the evolution of Human Resource Management as the integral part of any organization to run smoothly. From the clerical job of just an employee record keeper to a strategic human asset manager this article has evaluated status of theory and research on HR reputation and effectiveness, and recommends directions for future work. The article starts of by looking at the beginning the change chain in the HR function progression. Born from the industrial relations movement, personnel management was first examined in 1920 by Tead and Metcalf. And During the industrial revolution, utilizing the scientific management of work (e.g., Taylor, 1895), companies began to quantify â€Å"†¦ the most efficient method for performing each work task, piece-rate systems of compensation to maximize employee work effort, and the selection and training of employees based on a thorough investigation of their talents and skills† Starting from the first look at HR function more seriously in 1920 it has moved from the century focusing on the years which hold importance towards the shaping of HR functions as we see them today. In 1925 Craig Charter adding to the chain proved that personnel management 1) became autonomous from the line managers and foremen, 2) turned an interest to psychology, 3)said a firm must be focused on leaders ability to â€Å"†¦effectively deal with employees and earn their loyalty and support† As in 1926 Lewisohn noted, the inherent labor problems that exist between workers and organizations were not a matter of capitalistic dialectic incompatibility, but, rather, incongruence between â€Å"†¦the organizational and administrative practices of management.† Thus, the core of a good organizational-employee relationship is recognizing and capitalizing on the mutual interests of maximum satisfaction and financial return (Filene, 1919). More work was done by Follett and Tead in 1929 and further by Kaufman in 1993 which said â€Å"To obtain cooperation, trust, loyalty, and hard work among employees, firms must attempt to simultaneously fulfill the goals of the worker and the organization† As the number of personal policies continued to increase, so did the importance of human resources management (HRM). As HRM grew, even more laws and regulations were passed in the 1950s and 1960s that promoted equal and fair treatment for all able workers (Russ, Galang, Ferris, 1998). However, it was not until the 1970s and 1980s, when U.S.-based companies realized that their technological processes were no longer a source of sustained competitive advantage (Pfeffer, 1994), that HRM was viewed as impacting on organizational performance. As explained by Barney (1991), in his resource-based view of the firm, in order to remain profitable in the long run, organizations must have a sustainable competitive advantage. As organizations placed more emphasis on the human factor, the field of human resource management was formed from a result of various scientific fields of inquiry such as industrial relations and psychology (Dulebohn et al., 1995). In the last 15 years, HRM has further justified its strategic importance, increasingly being viewed as a key resource organizations possess (Pfeffer, 1997), and an essential link in firms strategies (e.g., Arthur, 1994; Huselid, 1995). As human resources are managed appropriately by matching unique internal processes with environmental opportunities and needs, HRM has the potential to be a source of competitive advantage over other firms in the industry. In turn, HRM has been held more accountable to contributing meaningfully to firm performance. Because human resource management is now seen as an important factor in organizational performance and effectiveness, the power and, as a result, the reputation of HR also has increased. How does the author(s) support the hypothesis? Reputation of the firm in the market is based on the Human Resource as an asset to the firm. By quoting; The study of reputation in the organizational sciences largely has been focused on reputation at the corporate level. Organizational theorists have suggested that reputation is one of the few resources that can give firms a sustainable competitive advantage, because it is viewed as a non-tradable, non substitutable, non-imitable, resource that can be managed (Barney, 1991; Kothaa, Rajgopala, Rindova, 2001). Work done by Reed DeFillippi, 1990; Barney, 1991; Lado Wilson, 1994; Huselid 1995; Delaney and Huselid, 1996; Ulrich, 1997; Becker Huselid, 1998; Boxall in 2003; Lawler Mohrman in the year 2003;; Colbert 2004;; Hatch Dyer, 2004; Bowen Ostroff 2004 showed that personal reputation is a collectively agreed upon perception by others, and that reputation exists in a vacuum of imperfect information. When an audience is attempting to gather information regarding an individual (or organization), reputation is relied on to â€Å"fill in the blanks.† This is similar to corporate reputation theory in that personal reputation is based upon social norms, as opposed to market norms. Established upon the notion that reputation is related to social norms, current research suggests that to successfully acquire a reputation, an individual or organization must â€Å"stand out† from others in the field. Rindova, Pollock and Hayward (2006) reflected these beliefs in a recent piece dev oted to celebrity firms, acknowledging the relationship between reputation and celebrity. Suggesting that reputation reflects a predictive measure, they argued that both celebrity and reputation are based on others perception of some entity. Similarly the department level reputation depends on the production of the department individuals respectively and collectively different departments form the reputation of the organization as a whole. This view is supported by work done in 2005 by Roberts. Research in CEO celebrity has shown that a leaders reputation may change the reputation of the company (Hayward, Rindova, Pollock, 2004). Logically, the same process should apply to departments. If an HR department has a strong, powerful leader, the members of the department should feel an increase in power (Cialdini et al., 1976). Consistent support has been found for the HRM firm performance link in the literature, and with the continued development of theory, a richer understanding of how this relationship occurs can both advance the literature and facilitate improvement in practice. The theoretical underpinnings of the literature examining the relationship between HRM and firm performance have developed from; o Examining specific sets of HR practices. o Examining a match between HR practices and strategy o Examining the role of HRM in building and maintaining organizational resources and capabilities that contribute directly to a firms competitive advantage. The linkage between HRM and performance has be identified by the authors on the work done by Barney, 1991; Lado Wilson, 1994; Ulrich, 1997; Becker Huselid, 1998; Perry-Smith and Blum 2000; Boxall, 2003; Lawler Mohrman, 2003;, Ranft Lord, 2000, 2002; Collins Clark, 2003; Colbert, 2004; Hatch Dyer, 2004; Bowen Ostroff, 2004; Hatch and Dyer, 2004 HR reputation does have an impact on the larger overarching image of the organization. It is important to have an HR reputation of fairness, and to advertise this quality to important stakeholders. Although only one of the signals from the study affected share price, there may be other advantages of HR reputation at the firm level that are just as important, such as performance, labor costs, and employee turnover. This theory is based on the work done by Wright, Ferris, Hiller and Kroll in 1995; Hannon Milkovich in 1996 and Koys in 1997. What is the main aim of the article? The aim of the article is to provide a base line from the work done throughout the 19th century on the importance of the Human Resource Management as an integral part of the success of any firm. And to provide the readers with information from so many writers from 1920 to 2006 in the history of HR functions enabling the reader to suggest even more on the basis of research work done by them working in their environment any where in the world as human psychology is ever changing. Is the article timely? In the era of fast growing technology and change in almost every firm around the globe the need to develop and consider human resource as an integral part of any organizations success is the key as we read in so many journals and magazines such as â€Å"Times† and â€Å"Business Recorder† the stories of better human resource management success stories of successful companies, it does show that the importance of HR in any firm can not be ignored any more. This article was published in the year 2007 which is to me some what late because of the already changing trends in organization management. So I would have liked the article to be published before the beginning of this century as the boom in technology and industrial revolution has forced companies to review their HR policies and still there are many countries and firms around the world which lack the awareness of the importance of HR as an important mix in the success of their company. Is the methodology appropriate? Any weaknesses? The authors supported their perspective by using quotations and the research work done by over 20 people; from different research papers, articles, books and publications from the year 1920 to 2006. As they moved along the history starting from 1920 little indication of any work between 1930 and 1990 is given. Which I believe has left a big gap in the research work. Although some indication has been given that not much work was done between theses years to promote the importance of HR. Suggestions for future theory and research remains incomplete as many of the ideas merely seem to be repeated of what they have explained in the previous sections. For example: Just as celebrity status for a CEO or a firm has been shown to increase the breadth and volume of resources available to these actors, the popularity and celebrity of HR practices in an organization may increase the resources allocated to the HR function in those organizations. As resources increase, the power and influence of the HR function increase (Pfeffer, 1997). Research in CEO celebrity has shown that a leaders reputation may change the reputation of the company (Hayward, Rindova, Pollock, 2004). First paragraph quotation is taken from the work done by (Pfeffer, 1997) comes in the article in the first part. And the second written in the conclusion part from (Hayward, Rindova, Pollock, 2004). Both implying the same idea, supporting the conclusion by a repeating quote can affect the strength of the conc lusion itself. How does the article contribute to the field? Does it make an original contribution to the field? Human resource management has evolved into a strategic business partner linking organization goals to the internal and external customers of the company. This article contributes to the field of Human Resource Management vitally as organizations today are shifting and transforming into a global business and fostering local businesses. The importance to align the strategic goals with the HR efforts remains vital to the success. How does the article relate to the course? The course entitled management organizational policy is the study of how organizational strategies are made to run the processes and to make the firm as competitive as possible. This article throws light on Human Resource managements importance and how it thrived and evolved over the years. The most important asset in any firm today is considered to be the Human Resource and managing it properly is the key to success. Diagnosing Human Resource Management Practices: Increasingly, teamwork is seen as one of the main building blocks of successful organizations and much time, effort and resources are being invested in developing and managing cohesive teams (Katzenbach and Smith, 1994) The potential benefits of these investments are numerous and diverse. Perhaps the greatest is the achievement of organizational synergy where the output of the whole team becomes greater than the sum of the individual contributors and in so doing boosts the productivity and creativity of their units and functions. In addition, teamwork can benefit the company and its members in the following ways (Wilson, 1994): For many organizations, decentralization and delegation have been central features of their new management philosophy. Current thinking leads to the removal of as many levels as possible in an attempt to rid the organization of bureaucracy. This is expected to provide faster communication both up and down the organization with less chance of distortion. Another benefit of de layering is that individuals and groups can be more autonomous and responsive to customer needs (Wilson, 1994). Within the general policy guidelines of the organization, employees at the customer interface are empowered to make decisions that previously would have to be referred to higher levels. Finally, another application of the framework presented in this paper would be to investigate the relative influence of so-called best practices on different organizational outcomes. Many of the HRM practices identified in the recent literature seem like fads because they often are implemented without much understanding of the underlying principles of human behavior as well as a tendency to do whatever is popular at the moment, regardless of whether it makes sense in the specific setting or organization (Pfeffer, 1994). It is this trendiness that makes the task of measuring and demonstrating the effective contribution of HR policies and practices of organizations so difficult. Yet, for many line managers, it is the ability to show that HR adds value, not the rhetoric, that forms the basis of policy making and which gives HR its place on company boards. If the HR policies and practices are misaligned, or no attempt is made to provide line managers with a framework to assess practices on an ongoing basis, the credibility and influence of the HR function will suffer. The framework put forward in this article may help to avoid these mistakes. Linkage between Production and Effective HRM: The aspect of this model presenting the greatest practical difficulty is in specifying and measuring employee productivity. A couple of factors complicate this task. The one receiving the most attention in the past has been the problem of measuring productivity, and the more fundamental problem concerning the definition of productivity. At the simplest level, productivity can be defined in terms of quantity of output. Quality is also an important aspect of productivity, but it is the quantity definition of productivity that has received the most attention. The practical difficulty is that many measures of productivity (both quantity and particularly quality) are subjective measures, and thus not very amenable to simulation. Blue collar and routine clerical occupations are the ones most amenable to simulations at present, due to the relative simplicity involved in defining and measuring productivity. Due to the difficulty in determining acceptable objective performance measures, many organizations and studies rely upon subjective measures of productivity, but Bommer et al. [13] conclude that the measures are not interchangeable due to the low published correlations between objective and subjective performance measures. In practical terms, this means that the performance measures used by most organizations are useless for the purpose of simulation studies. The model just illustrated and discussed makes it clear just how complex the human resource aspects of production can be, yet complexity is not a sufficient reason to warrant inclusion in models of production systems. It is only important to include human resources in production system models if biased or deficient conclusions would result from ignoring human resources. The discussion will thus turn to some examples that will highlight the importance of considering carefully the human resource implications of policy decisions. Finally, a brief example of an informal test of the model is discussed. In the example, a post hoc evaluation of an actual example is performed, with simulation results that are consistent with the actual outcome. Leaders influence on organizational effectiveness: Most effects of human capital on firm performance are mediated by efficiency and innovative adaptation. Employees with strong skills and motivation are likely to be more productive, because they will do the work faster and smarter. Research shows that talented employees can improve efficiency and process reliability (e.g., Hatch Dyer, 2004; Ichniowski Shaw, 1999). Talented employees can also improve adaptation by helping to develop innovative products and services, by marketing them effectively, and by providing excellent customer service (Baer Frese, 2003; Pfeffer, 1998; Vermeulen, Jong, OShaughnessy, 2005). Because efficiency and adaptation mediate the effects of human resources and relations on firm performance, the importance of human resources and relations increases when talented, dedicated employees are needed to achieve optimal levels for these other two performance determinants. Human resources are more important when operations are labor intensive, the work is complex and difficult to learn, successful performance requires a high level of skill and experience, and it is difficult to recruit and train competent replacements for people who leave. Examples of organizations likely to have such conditions include hospitals, consulting firms, law firms, advertising agencies, research universities, and companies that rely on advanced manufacturing technology (Snell Dean, 1992). Human resources and relations are very important when the competitive strategy requires unique experts or celebrities to attract and retain customers (Grant, 1996; Pennings et al., 1998). If unusually talented employees are dissatisfied, they can often find jobs in competing companies or start their own company. Voluntary turnover of key employees can be important not only for the loss of unique skills, but also for the loss of their special external relationships with clients, suppliers, strategic partners, and others (Dess Shaw, 2001; Leana Van Buren, 1999; Pennings et al., 1998). Examples of organizations with high dependence on uniquely talented members include professional sports teams, advertising agencies, talent agencies, consulting companies, and investment banking firms. Human relations and resources are less important when much of the work can be done by unskilled workers, there are many people who are able and willing to do simple repetitive work for low wages and benefits, and there are few labor laws or other limitations on how employees are treated (as in many third-world countries). Likewise, human resources and relations are less important when an organization needs few employees except for the headquarters staff (e.g., a chemicals company with highly automated processes, an internet services company, or a â€Å"virtual organization† for which nearly all functions are outsourced). Leaders can improve the performance of an organization by influencing the performance determinants. One form of influence is the use of specific leadership behaviors in interactions with subordinates, peers, and outsiders. A second form of influence involves decisions about management programs and systems, and organizational structure. A third form of influence involves decisions about the competitive strategy for the organization. The three forms of influence must be used together in a consistent way for effective strategic leadership. The Changing Role of HR Managers in Europe: European HR management appears to be a field in transition; external forces such as increasing demands for quality improvement, privatization and completion of the Single European Market are important influences affecting the nature and scope of HRM across European countries. Competitive pressures have added to the challenges created by the changes in the occupational and demographic make-up of the workforce. What are the implications of these developments for the HR function across Europe? It is interesting to note that HR and non-HR managers attached a different degree of importance to the various skill and knowledge areas. In particular, HR managers rated organizational change skills, general business management, and knowledge of general Personnel HR techniques significantly higher in importance than non- HR managers. In contrast, non-HR managers attached more importance to consultation skills, improving employee motivation, and working in teams. These differences were most pronounced in the manufacturing sector. In fact, analysis of sector scores showed that respondents from manufacturing companies consistently rated the need for skills to improve employee motivation, teamwork, and cross-cultural communication higher than those employed in the service and public sectors. These growing demands put the HR manager in a difficult position. If (as the EAPM findings indicated) HR managers are often perceived as too administrative and traditional, line managers may hesitate to allow them to rotate out of the narrow confines of their function into areas where they can gain broader business experience. In addition, what remains unclear is what will happen to the potential role overload and growing expectations on someone in the role of a hardworking HR manager who cannot do all that is required. The senior HR executive in a Swiss company put it candidly: ‘It scares me to think that I might be expected to go out and run a business after twenty years in HR. Im afraid Id fail. HRM Practices in small firms: According to the RBV, human resources (as distinct from human resource activities) are viewed as a potential source of sustained competitive advantage because value, rareness, inimitability and non substitutability is derived from the inherent heterogeneity, ambiguity and complexity of these resources and the conditions under which they are deployed (Wright et al., 1994). Value derives from the unique contribution of skills, knowledge, and cognitive abilities (for example) to achieving firm goals. Research shows that training is an important HRM issue for many small firms, but formal training is less likely to be provided in these firms (Storey, 2004). Storey and Westhead (1997) provide two explanations for this. First, training is less likely to occur in small firms because of ‘ignorance of the benefit it can bring and second because the cost is too high for small firms (Storey, 2004; Storey Westhead, 1997). Importance of Corporate image and reputation: From the perspective of marketing, the impact of corporate image and reputation on consumer behavior is well recognized in spite of the lack of empirical evidence. Numerous authors assert that a good corporate image or reputation helps to increase the firms sales and its market share (Shapiro, 1982), and to establish and maintain a loyal relationship with customers (Andreassen and Lindestad, 1998; Robertson, 1993; Yoon et al., 1993). How is corporate image related to corporate reputation? A review of the past research in the field shows little empirical results except for some general statements. For example, Porter (1985) suggests that a good reputation may help a pioneer rebuilding an innovative image in the industry, while Franklin (1984) proposes that corporate reputation is a global and final outcome of the process of building a corporate image. Impact of Human Resource Management on Organizational Performance: Throughout the 1980s there were a number of variations along this theme of strategic fit (Lengnick-Hall and Lengnick-Hall, 1988). One of the clearest expositions and developments of this theme was given by Schuler and Jackson (1987). In their model, HRM is seen as a menu of strategic choices to be made by HR executives intended to promote the most effective role behaviors that are consistent with the organization strategy and are aligned with each other. The models starting points are the generic competitive strategies outlined by Porter (1980) i.e. quality enhancement, innovation and cost leadership or reduction. For example, Kravetz (1988) conducted a survey of 150 Forbes 500 companies to examine the relationship between Human Resource Progressiveness (HRP) and a variety of financial measures drawn from Standard Poors Compustat Services, such as five-year growth in sales, five-year growth in profits, and P-E ratio for the latest twelve months. HRP was measured by asking the vice presidents of human resources of each company in the survey to complete a fifty-one item questionnaire on human resource policies and practices in the areas of communication, management style, career development, performance management, working hours and employee participation. Finally, it is clear the contribution of even highly skilled and motivated employees will be limited if jobs are programmed or structured in such a way that employees do not get the opportunity to use their skills and abilities to improve their performance. Consequently, HRM practices can also create competitive advantage through provision of organizational structures, leadership and work conditions that encourage initiative and creativity among employees and allow them to find ways to improve how their jobs are performed. Delegation, cross-functional teamwork and participative management are examples of such conditions. FINAL CONCLUSION With the increasing demands of todays business environment, company executives are placing more pressure on the human resource function to perform better, smarter, faster, and cheaper, while providing more value added services. Now, in addition to supporting workforce requirements and general business initiatives, the activities of HR are increasingly focused on managing the broader human capital capabilities required to achieve and sustain a competitive advantage (e.g., succession planning, leadership development, performance management, cultural transformation).In order to accommodate this shift in focus, HR needs to rapidly align their priorities and resources to provide the wider range of expertise necessary. References: How leaders influence organizational effectiveness Gary Yukl Management Department, University at Albany, Albany, NY 12222, USA. The Leadership Quarterly 19 (2008) 708-722 Hatch, W. N., Dyer, H. J. (2004). Human capital and learning as a source of sustainable competitive advantage. Strategic Management Journal, 25, 1155−1178. Ichniowski, C., Shaw, K. (1999). The effect of human resource management systems on economic performance: an international comparison of U.S. and Japanese plants. . Management Science, 45(5), 704−721. Baer, M., Frese, M. (2003). Innovation is not enough: climates for initiative and psychological safety, process innovations, and firm performance. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 24, 45−68. Pfeffer, J. (1998). The human equation. Boston: Harvard Business School. Vermeulen, A. M. P., Jong, D. P. J. J., O, Shaughnessy, K. C. (2005). Identifying key determinants for new produ

Morals and Values in The Lottery by Shirley Jackson Essay -- The Lotter

Morals and Values in The Lottery by Shirley Jackson In Shirley Jackson's, "The Lottery", human morals and values are thrown away all for the pride of winning something. What is it that they really win? When you win the lottery in this story, you actually win death by stoning. Isn't that ironic, people actually being competitive and getting excited about death in public. What morals or values do these people really have, and how are they different from what common society is thought today? The first to gather in the square on the day of the lottery are the children. The children, sweet, innocent children who do not know any better and are only taking part in this cruelty because they view it as a fun game. Then the adults begin to gather in the square. They are older and wiser, knowing what is to become of that one invididual whose name is drawn. They know of the agony that awaits them, but they have been taught to believe in it, sot ehy continue to participate even if it means they are the chosen one. These adults are so caught up in tradition that they do not s...

The History of Rollerblades :: essays research papers fc

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Roller skating is said to have been born during the summer months when ice was not available. The first documented inventor of roller skates was John Joseph Merlin who was born September 17, 1735, in the city of Huys, Belgium. Merlin was well known for his abilities for making musical instruments and other interesting mechanical gadgets. Through various incarnations, roller skates strove to replicate the streamlined speed and maneuverability of ice skates, but without ball bearings or shock-absorbent wheels it would take 200 years before that dream was achieved. Even as late as 1960, the Chicago Skate Company attempted to market an inline skate that looked much like today's skate, but it did not offer sufficient comfort, stability or a reliable brake (Zaidman 1). Although the Chicago Skate Company’s attempt of the inline skate was not successful, it did play a pivotal role in the molding of what is now known as inline skating. In 1980, two hockey-playing Minnesota Olson brothers discovered the in-line skate that the Chicago Skate Company had manufactured while rummaging through a sporting goods store and decided that this design would make an ideal off-season hockey-training tool. They refined the skate and began assembling the first Rollerblade skates in the basement of their parents' Minneapolis home. Working in their garage, they modified the design to add plastic wheels, a molded boot shell, and a tow brake. The Olsen brothers sold their product, which they dubbed â€Å"Rollerblade Skate,† out of the back of their truck to off-season hockey player and skiers (Kerin 5). It was that same year, when they founded the company that would become Rollerblade ® (Rollerblade.com). In 1984, Minneapolis businessman Bob Naegele, Jr. purchased Olson's fledgling company, which eventually became Rollerblade, Inc. Though not the first company to manufacture inline skates, Rollerblade, by offering a comfortable skate with a reliable and easy-to-implement brake, took inline skating out of the exclusive domain of hockey players and introduced millions to the sport that now has the whole world on a roll (Zaidman 1). The History of Rollerblades :: essays research papers fc   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Roller skating is said to have been born during the summer months when ice was not available. The first documented inventor of roller skates was John Joseph Merlin who was born September 17, 1735, in the city of Huys, Belgium. Merlin was well known for his abilities for making musical instruments and other interesting mechanical gadgets. Through various incarnations, roller skates strove to replicate the streamlined speed and maneuverability of ice skates, but without ball bearings or shock-absorbent wheels it would take 200 years before that dream was achieved. Even as late as 1960, the Chicago Skate Company attempted to market an inline skate that looked much like today's skate, but it did not offer sufficient comfort, stability or a reliable brake (Zaidman 1). Although the Chicago Skate Company’s attempt of the inline skate was not successful, it did play a pivotal role in the molding of what is now known as inline skating. In 1980, two hockey-playing Minnesota Olson brothers discovered the in-line skate that the Chicago Skate Company had manufactured while rummaging through a sporting goods store and decided that this design would make an ideal off-season hockey-training tool. They refined the skate and began assembling the first Rollerblade skates in the basement of their parents' Minneapolis home. Working in their garage, they modified the design to add plastic wheels, a molded boot shell, and a tow brake. The Olsen brothers sold their product, which they dubbed â€Å"Rollerblade Skate,† out of the back of their truck to off-season hockey player and skiers (Kerin 5). It was that same year, when they founded the company that would become Rollerblade ® (Rollerblade.com). In 1984, Minneapolis businessman Bob Naegele, Jr. purchased Olson's fledgling company, which eventually became Rollerblade, Inc. Though not the first company to manufacture inline skates, Rollerblade, by offering a comfortable skate with a reliable and easy-to-implement brake, took inline skating out of the exclusive domain of hockey players and introduced millions to the sport that now has the whole world on a roll (Zaidman 1).

Waiting for the Bus - Original Writing :: Papers

Waiting for the Bus - Original Writing It was about 8 o'clock in the evening, it was been raining for a very long time; the atmosphere around is so miserable; the air is so heavy as if it's filled with lead and the surroundings are dull and lifeless as if it was the darkest corner on earth. A middle aged man with tattoos all over his body smoking a cigar is being interviewed by a female doctor in a psychiatric hospital. While preparing the apparatus, the young lady tells him about the procedure:" This conversation will be recorded, as many others before it, do you understand Peter? Would you like to tell me about your dreams?" In this depressing room, with dull lights, you can only see the still outline of the two people, as if they are mysterious statues sat there staring at each other. After a while the man takes a deep breath and begins to talk."Every night for all the three months that I have been kept here, I have had the same bizarre dream, the screams of which have been waking everyone up at night". There was a pause during which the young psychiatrist was looking desperately into the madman's eyes and him looking away as if ashamed of something. "My dreams get longer each night"- whispered the patient in a distressed voice. The conversation was ended there and then; Peter never said a word until his next meeting with the psychiatrist. Every time they met their chat got them one step closer to the patient's dream. Spring was approaching; the weather gradually began to change from cold and rainy to sunny and cheerful. These were the first few days it has been like this. It was like a new start for Peter; the weather was divine and precious, he could not get enough of it, it seemed like it gave him power and superiority over every one else. As the days grew longer, so did the conversations the psychiatrist and the man had. It was an ordinary day and as usual Peter was having a 5 o'clock

Esssential of Negotiation

Helsinki School of Economics Advanced Negotiation Practices Course Book Summary Assignment Essentials of Negotiation Lewicki, Roy J. , David M. Saunders, and John W. Minton. 2001. Essentials of Negotiation: 2nd Edition. New York: McGraw-Hill/Irwin Reviewed by Mohammad Moshtari February 2008 Book Summary Assignment Essentials of Negotiation Book Introduction This book represents authors’ response to faculty who wanted a briefer version of the longer text, Negotiation. The objective of this shorter volume is to provide the reader with the core concepts negotiation in a more succinct version. The book is organized into 9 chapters. The first four chapters introduce the reader to ? Negotiation Fundamentals?. The first chapter introduces the field of negotiation and conflict management, describes the basic problem of interdependence with other people, and briefly explores the problems of managing that interdependence. The second chapter introduces the concept of ? framing? or how parties come to decide what a negotiation is all about, and how parties need to plan for an upcoming negotiation. Chapter 3 and 4 then present the two core approaches to negotiations: the basic dynamics of competitive (win-loss) bargaining (chapter 3) and the basic dynamics of integrative (win-win) negotiation (chapter 4). The next two chapters present two key sub processes of negotiation: cognition and communication, and power and persuasion. In chapter 5, basic processes of cognition and communication in negotiation is reviewed, especially communication dynamics is examined as well as a number of common cognition and judgment biases made by negotiators. In chapter 6, authors looked at the tools negotiators can use to pressure the other side, using the tools of persuasion and power to get the other to change his or her perspective or give in to our arguments. The next two chapters review two key context elements of negotiation. In chapter 7, authors examined the ethical context and standards that surround negotiation and create unique challenges for negotiators in deciding how fully and completely they are going to disclose their bargaining positions. In chapter 8, authors attempted to clarify how national cultures around the world shape the diverse ways parties approach negotiations. The last chapter emphasizes strategies that can be used by the parties to resolve breakdowns in the negotiation process. Chapter 9 explores the techniques that negotiators can use on their own to get negotiations back on track. Authors made some of related materials (secondary chapters) accessible on the World Wide Web (at www. mhhe. com/business/managment/lewicki) including social context of negotiation, multiparty negotiations or managing difficult negotiations: theirs party approaches. The organization of the book also parallels more closely the organization of a companion volume, Negotiation: Readings, Exercises and Cases by Roy J. Lewicki. , David M. Saunders, and John W. Minton. Contents in Brief ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? The nature of negotiation Negotiations: framing, strategizing, and planning Strategy and tactics of distributive negotiation Strategy and tactics of integrative negotiation Communication, perception and cognitive biases Finding and using negotiation leverage Ethics in negotiation Global negotiation Managing difficult negotiations: individual approaches Book Summary Assignment Essentials of Negotiation Chapter 1: The nature of negotiation The structure and processes of negotiation are fundamentally the same at personal level as they are at the diplomatic and corporate level. Negotiations occur for two reasons: (1) to create something new that neither party could do on his or her own, (2) to resolve a problem or dispute between the parties. There are sev eral characteristics common to all negotiation situations: (1) there are two or ore parties, (2) there is a conflict of interest between them, (3) The parties negotiate duo to get a better deal (4) the parties, at least for a moment prefer to search for agreement, (5) when they negotiate they expect to give and take, (6) successful negotiation involves the management of intangibles (such as need to look good) as well as resolving the tangibles (such as the terms of agreement) In negotiations both parties need each other. This situation of mutual dependency is called interdependence. Interdependent relationships are characterized by interlocking goals; the parties need each other to accomplish their goals. The structure of the interdependence (wind-lose or win-win), determines the range of possible outcomes of the negotiation and suggests the appropriate strategies and tactics that the negotiators should use. Interdependent relationships are complex. Both parties know that they can influence the other’s outcomes and their outcomes in turn be influenced by the other. This mutual adjustment continues throughout the negotiation as both parties act to influence the other. Making and interpreting concessions is no easy work, especially when there is little trust between negotiations. The search for an optimal solution through the processes of giving information and making concessions is greatly aided by trust and a belief that you are being treated honesty and fairly. Two efforts in negotiation help to create such trust and belief: perceptions of outcomes that attempts to change a party’s estimation of the perceived importance of something and perception of the process may help convey images of equity, fairness and reciprocity in proposals and concessions. One potential consequence of interdependent relationship is conflict that can be duo to the highly divergent needs of the two parties, a misunderstanding that occurs between two people, or some other intangible factors. One way to classify conflicts is by level, and four levels of conflicts are commonly identified: intrapersonal conflict, interpersonal conflict, intra-group conflict, inter-group conflict. Conflict may be destructive or productive, so the objective is not to eliminate conflict but to learn how to manage it so that the destructive elements are controlled while the productive aspects are enjoyed. Negotiation is a strategy for productively managing conflict. Many approaches to managing conflict have been suggested. The below two dimensional framework is represented as the dual concerns model. The model postulates that individuals in conflict have two independent levels of concern: concern about their own outcomes and concern about the other’s outcomes. As mentioned in the figure, there are five major Problem Yielding strategies for conflict management. Each strategy has its Solving advantages and disadvantages and is more or less appropriate given the type of conflict and situation in which (compromising) the dispute occurs. Thus, conflict theory and research have moved toward a contingency approach advocating that the Inaction Contending strategy selected should be based on the objectives of the parties and the nature of their dispute. Two major mechanisms for resolving conflicts-third parties and Concern about own outcomes conflict management systems- extend above and beyond the strategies of the parties themselves. Concern about others’ utcomes 3 Book Summary Assignment Essentials of Negotiation Chapter 2: Negotiations: framing, strategizing, and planning In this chapter, authors discuss what negotiators should do before sitting down at the table: framing, strategizing, and planning. Framing is the means by which the parties in a negotiation define the problem. They mention that there are three ways to understand frames: as cognitive heuristics, at categories of experience, and as a process of issue development. In continuation, they try to introduce the negotiator to the power and prevalence of frames via: different types of frames, how certain frames may be invoked or ignored in a given situation, the consequences of framing a conflict in a particular way and the approaches that negotiators can use to manage frames more effectively. Understanding frames- which means understanding how parties define the key issues and how conversations can shift and transform those issues- is the first step in effective planning. After framing, negotiators must anticipate what they want to achieve in a negotiation and must prepare for these events in advance. The preparation must include attention to substantive items including goals, goal priorities, and multi-goal packages as well as procedural concerns dealing with agendas and bargaining histories. the choice of goals and frames are strongly interactive and the existence of one will rapidly produce evidence of other. Afterwards negotiators move to the third element in the sequence: selecting and developing a strategy. According to below suggested model, negotiators have some choices of a negotiation that is reflected in the answers to two simple questions: how much concern does the actor have for achieving the substantive outcomes at stake in this Substantive outcome important? negotiation and how much concern does the Yes No negotiator have for the current and future quality of relationship with the other party. Yes Collaboration Accommodation In the last part of chapter, authors explain the importance of planning. hile success in negotiation is affected by how one plays the game, the most important step for success is No Competition Avoidance how to one gets ready for the game. effective planning also hard work on a number of specific steps: ? Defining issues ? Assembling issues and defining the bargaining mix ? Defining interests ? Consulting with others ? Identifying limits ? Setting targets ? Developing supporting arguments ? Analyzing the other party Frames, goals, strategies and stages set the background for an effective planning process. If the negotiator is able to consider and evaluate each of these factors, the negotiator will know what he or she wants and will have a clear sense of direction on how to proceed. The sense of direction, and the confidence derived from it will be the single most important factor in achieving a desired negotiation outcome. Rational choice important 4 Book Summary Assignment Essentials of Negotiation Chapter 3: Strategy and tactics of distributive negotiation In a distributive bargaining situation, the goals of one party are usually in fundamental and direct conflict with the goals of the other party. Resources are fixed and each party will use a set of strategies to maximize their share of resources to be obtained. While distributive strategies are useful, they can also be counterproductive and costly. Often they cause the negotiating parties to focus so much on their differences that they ignore what they have in common. These negative effects notwithstanding, distributive bargaining strategies are quite useful when a negotiator wants to maximize the value obtained in a single deal and when the relationship with the other party is not important. Both parties to a negotiation should establish their starting, target and resistance points before beginning a negotiation. Starting points are usually in the opening statements each party makes. The target point is usually learned or inferred as negotiations get under way. The resistance point, the point beyond which a person will not go and would rather break off negotiations. The spread between the resistance points, called bargaining range, settlement range or zone of potential agreement, is particularly important. In this area the actual bargaining takes place, for anything outside these point will be summarily rejected by one of the two negotiators. It is rare that a negotiation includes only one item; more typically there is a set of items, referred to as a bargaining mix. Each item in a bargaining mix can have opening, target and resistance points. The bargaining mix may provide opportunities for bundling issues together, logrolling or displaying mutually concessionary behavior. Negotiators by employing strategies attempt to influence each other perceptions of what is possible through the exchange of information and persuasion. Regardless of the general strategy taken, two tasks are important in all distributive bargaining situations: discovering the other party’s resistance point and influencing the other party’s resistance point. The negotiator’s basic goal is to reach a final settlement as close to the other party’s resistance point as possible. Four tactical tasks are suggested for a negotiator in a distributive bargaining: (1) to asses the other party’s outcome values and the costs of terminating negotiations, (2) to manage the other party’s impressions of the negotiator’s outcome values, (3) to modify the other party’s perception of his or her own outcome values, and (4) to manipulate the actual costs of delaying or aborting negotiations. The other decision to be made at the outset of distributive bargaining concerns the stance to adopt during negotiations. A reasonable bargaining position is usually coupled with a friendly stance and an extreme position is usually couple ith a tougher, more competitive stance. A key concept in creating a bargaining position is that of commitment. The purpose of a commitment is to remove ambiguity about the actor’s intended course of action. There are several ways to create a commitment: public pronouncement, link with an outside ally, increase the promi nence of demands, reinforce the treat or promise. There are a set of hardball tactics to beat the other party. Such tactics are designed to pressure targeted parties to do things they would not otherwise do, and their presence usually disguises the user’s adherence to a decidedly distributive bargaining approach. Some of them are: good guy/bad guy, highball/lowball, bogey, the nibble, chicken, intimidation, aggressive behavior, snow job. The authors suggested three ways for responding to typical hardball tactics, including ignore them, discuss them and respond in kind. 5 Book Summary Assignment Essentials of Negotiation Chapter 4: Strategy and tactics of integrative negotiation In many negotiations there need not be winners and losers; all parties can be winner. In integrative negotiation- variously known as cooperative, collaborative, win-win, or problem solving- the goals of the parties are not mutually exclusive. The fundamental structure of an integrative negotiation situation is such that it allows both sides to achieve their objectives. Integrative negotiation requires a process fundamentally different from that of distributive negotiation. Those wishing to achieve integrative results find that they must manage both the context and the process of the negotiation in order to gain the willing cooperation and commitment of all parties. The following processes tend to be central to achieving almost all integrative agreements: ? creating a free flow of information ? ttempting to understand the other negotiator’s real needs and objectives ? emphasizing the commonalities between the parties and minimizing the difference ? searching for solutions that meet the goals and objectives of both sides There are four major steps in the integrative negotiation process: 1. Identifying and defining the problem, ? define the problem in a way that is mutually acceptable to both sides ? keep the problem statement clean and simple ? state the problem as a goal and identify the obstacles to attaining this goal ? epersonalize the problem ? separate the problem definition from the search for solution 2. understanding the problem and bringing interests and needs to the surface (focusing on interests will allow the parties to move beyond opening positions and demands to determine what the parties really want, what needs truly must be satisfied) 3. generating alternative solutions to the problem (tactics such as expand the pie, logroll, nonspecific compensation, cut the costs for compliance, find a bridge solution 4. Evaluating those alternatives and selecting among them ? narrow the range of solution options ? agree to the criteria in advance of evaluating options ? evaluate solutions on the basis of quality and acceptability ? be willing to justify personal preferences ? be alert to the influence of intangibles in selecting options ? use subgroups to evaluate complex issues ? take time out to cool off ? explore different ways to logroll ? keep decisions tentative and conditional until all aspects of the final proposals are complete ? inimize formality and record keeping until final agreements are closed Authors identified seven fundamental preconditions for successful integrative negotiation: some form of shared or common goal, faith in one’s own ability to solve problems, a belief in the validity and importance of the other’s position, the motivation and commitment to work together, trust in the opposing negotiator, the ability to accurately exchange information in spite of confl ict conditions, and an understanding of how the process works. 6 Book Summary Assignment Essentials of Negotiation Chapter 5: Communication, perception and cognitive biases Communication is at the heart of the negotiating process. This chapter focuses on the processes by which negotiators communicate their own interests, positions, and goals and in turn make sense of those of the other party and of the negotiation as a whole. Weather the intent is to command and compel, sell, persuade or gain commitment, how parties communicate in negotiation would seem to depend on the ability of the speaker to encode the thoughts properly as well as on the ability of the listener to understand and decode the intended messages. There are two critical sub-processes of communication: perception and cognition. ? Perception is defined as the process of screening, selecting and interpreting stimuli so that they have meaning to the individual. The complexity of environments makes it impossible to process all of the available information, so perception becomes selective, focusing on some stimuli while turning out others. As a result people have several shortcuts in their perceptual systems that allow them to process information more readily. Unfortunately these shortcuts come with cost-perceptual errors such as stereotyping, halo effects, selective perception or projectionswhich typically occur without people being aware that they are happening. Stimulus Attention Recognition Translation Behavior Perception ? Rather than being perfect processors of information, negotiators have a tendency to make systematic errors when they process information. These errors, labeled cognitive biases, tend to impede negotiator performance: the irrational escalation of commitment, mythical fixed pie belief, the process f anchoring and adjustment, issue and problem framing, negotiators overconfidence, the winner’s curse, self-serving biases, ignoring others’ cognitions, the law of small numbers and reactive devaluation. Failures and distortions in perception, cognition and communication are the most dominant contributors to breakdowns and failures in negotiations. Three main techniques have been proposed for improving communic ation in negotiation: the use of questions, listening and role reversal. 7 Book Summary Assignment Essentials of Negotiation Chapter 6: Finding and using negotiation leverage In this chapter, the authors focus on leverage in negotiation that means the tools negotiators can use to give themselves an advantage or increase the probability of achieving their own objectives. Leverage is often used synonymously with power. Authors explain three major sources of power: information and expertise, control over resources, and location in an organizational structure and then point to the process for using power as an attempt to change the other’s position, view or perspective. During negotiations, actors frequently need to convince each other, influence the other party’s positions, perceptions and opinions and for doing these they employ a group of tactics that are called persuasion. Authors consider four key elements of persuasion: ways in which sources of information can be powerful, ways in which messages can be structured to be more powerful, ways in which targets of persuasion can enhance or reduce their power and ways in which the elements in social context can exert indirect influence on the target. There are some ways in which to think about the key factors in the persuasion/ leverage process. One of them is shown in below figure. Message factors Resultant attitudes (positions) Initial attitudes (positions) ? Message content ? Message Structure ? Persuasive style Source factor ? Credibility ? Attractiveness Target factors ? attending to the other ? Resisting the other’s arguments Context factor Reciprocity, Commitment, Social proof, Use of reward and punishment, Scarcity Central Route Peripheral Route ? ? ? ? Message factors or ways in which he content of the message can be structured and presented to enhance its effectiveness Source factors or ways in which the sender of the message can enhance his or her credibility and attractiveness in order to make the message more believable or more friendly Receiver factors or ways in which the receiver of the message can either shape and direct what the sender is communicating or intellectually resist the persuasive effects of the message Context factors or elements inherent in the social structure (such as the relationship between the parties, the setting in which the message is sent or the amount time taken to communicate the message) that can determine whether a message is more or less likely to be received and complied with. There are at least three major things that you as the listener can do to resist the other’s influence efforts: have a best alternative to a negotiated agreement (BATNA), make a public commitment (or get the other pa rty to make one) and inoculate yourself against the other’s persuasive message. 8 Book Summary Assignment Essentials of Negotiation Chapter 7: Ethics in negotiation In this chapter authors explored the question of whether there are or should be accepted ethical standards for behavior in negotiation. Ethics are broadly applied social standards for what is right or wrong in a particular situation or a process for setting those standards. Ethics proceed from particular philosophies, which purport to (a) define the nature of the world in which we live and (b) prescribe rules for living together. The authors present a model to help explain how a negotiator decides whether to employ one or more deceptive tactics. Intentions and motives for using deceptive tactics Consequences: 1. Impact of tactic: does it work? 2. Self-evaluation 3. Feedback and reaction from other negotiator, constituency and audiences Influence Situation Identification of range of influence tactics Selection and use of a deceptive tactic Explanation and Justification Deception and disguise may take several forms in negotiation as follows: misrepresentation of one’s position to another party, bluffing, falsification (introduction of factually erroneous information), deception (collection of true and/or untrue arguments that leads the other party to the wrong conclusion) and selective disclosure or misrepresentation to constituencies. The authors predicted that (1) when motivated to be competitive and when expecting the other to be competitive the negotiator would see the marginally ethical tactics as appropriate and (2) when both parties were competitively motivated they would exhibit the greatest tendency to employ marginally ethical tactics. From the negotiator’s perspective the primary motivation to use a deceptive tactic is to gain a temporary power advantage. Using these tactics then produces consequences: the tactic may work (produce desired results) or not work; people evaluate their own use of the tactics( asking themselves if they were satisfied with the results, and if using the tactic was personally acceptable) and people also may receive evaluative comments from the other negotiator from constituencies and from audiences. Those evaluative comments may serve to increase or decrease the use of similar tactics in the future. If using the tactic allows negotiators to attain rewarding outcomes that would be unavailable to them if they behaved ethically and if the unethical conduct is not punished by others the frequency of unethical conduct is likely to increase because the negotiator believes he or she can get away with it. Negotiators frequently overlook the fact that although unethical or expedient tactics may get them what they want in the short run these same tactics typically lead to diminished effectiveness in the long term. (Consequences of these tactics on the negotiator’s reputation and trustworthiness, other party retaliation and revenge) If negotiators think the other party is using deceptive tactics he/she can do the following acts: Ask probing questions and recognize the tactic. 9 Book Summary Assignment Essentials of Negotiation Chapter 8: Global negotiation In this chapter authors examined various aspects of a growing field of negotiation that explores the complexities of negotiating across borders. Negotiators from different cultures (countries) use different negotiation strategies and communication patterns when negotiating intra-culturally than when negotiating cross-culturally. Two overall contexts have an influence on cross border negotiations: the environmental context, includes forces in the environment that are beyond the control of either party but that influence the negotiations, and immediate context, includes factors over which the negotiators have influence and some measure of control. To know more cultures, Hofstede suggested that there are four important dimensions that can be used to describe cultural differences: power distance, individualism/collectivism, masculinity/femininity and uncertainty avoidance. Foster suggests that culture can influence global negations in several ways, including: the definition of negotiation, the selection of negotiators, protocol, communication, time, risk propensity, groups versus individuals and the nature of agreements. The chapter concludes with a discussion of how to manage cultural differences when negotiating across borders. Weiss presented the options that people have when negotiating with someone from other culture. According to him, when choosing a strategy, negotiators should be aware of their own and the other party’s cultures in general, understand the specific factors in the current relationship, and predict or try to influence the other party’s approach. His suggested responsive strategies may be arranged into three groups, base on familiarity (low, moderate, high) that a negotiator has with the other party’s culture. Within each group there are some strategies that the negotiator may use individually (unilateral strategies) and others that involve the participation of the other party (joint strategies). Low familiarity ? Employ agents or advisors (unilateral Strategy) ? bring in a mediator ? Induce the other party to use your approach Moderate familiarity ? Adapt to the other party’s approach ? Coordinate adjustment High familiarity ? Embrace the other party’s approach ? Improvise an approach ? Effect symphony 10 Book Summary Assignment Essentials of Negotiation Chapter 9: Managing difficult negotiations: individual approaches Through any number of different avenues – breakdowns in communication, escalation of anger and mistrust, polarization of positions and refusal to compromise, the issuance of ultimatums or simply the inability to invent options that are satisfactory to both sides – negotiations often hit an impasse. Productive dialogue stops. The parties may continue talking but the communication is usually characterized by trying to sell or force one’s own position, talking about other’s unreasonable position and uncooperative behavior or both. This chapter reviewed actions that the parties can take to return to a productive dialogue. In general there are five major conflict reduction strategies that can be applied in contentious situations: 1. Reducing tension and managing the de-escalation of hostility (via methods such as tension release, acknowledgment of the other’s feelings (active listening), separating the parties, synchronized de-escalation) 2. Enhancing communication, particularly improving each party’s understanding of the other’s perspective (via methods such as role reversal or imaging) 3. Controlling the number and size of issues in the discussion ? Reduce the number of parties on each side ? control the number of substantive issues involved ? state issues in concrete terms rather than as general principles ? restrict the precedents involved, both procedural and substantive ? search for ways to fractionate the big issues ? depersonalize issues: separate them from the parties advocating them 4. Establishing a common ground on which the parties can find a basis for agreement (via methods such as determining super ordinate goals, clarifying common enemies, agreement on the rules and procedures) 5. Enhancing the desirability of the options and alternatives that each party presents to the other (give the other party a â€Å"yes-able† proposal, ask for a different decision, sweeten the offer rather than intensify the threat, use legitimacy or objective criteria to evaluate solutions) The order of above steps is the one most frequently used by third parties in resolving disputes and hence we believe it also will be the most effective if employed by negotiators themselves. If the conflict cannot be controlled effectively, third-party intervention may become necessary. 11