Grandfather’s Journey by Allen Say Essay

Question 1. Describe how the story is structured to influence your response to the text. Question 2. Describe one of the story’s major settings. How is it constructed and what is its significance to the story and its ideas? North America is the major setting in this book. North America holds a lot of new technology and everything is new and spectacular to him, the trains, the enormous rock sculptures and an endless farming field are examples of this. There is also a bad side to this place; there are huge cities of factories and tall buildings with thick smoke coming out of each building. But above all, best place was California, where there were a strong sunlight, the Sierra Mountains and the seacoast. Along the way he had met and shook hands new people, which had different cultural backgrounds to him. This setting is constructed in a way that the more the grandfather travels the more he liked it and wanted to make the ‘New World’ his home. This setting shows that the cultural barrier can be broken and people should go out and see the world and meet new people to develop more familiarity of the world they live in. Question 3. How are you positioned to respond to the major character/s of the story? What values are represented through them? Question 4. Describe the extent to which language and graphics are successfully used together to shape your response. Discuss with close reference to at lease two examples. In the Grandfather’s Journey, there are a few pages where the graphics and the text connect together to give the reader a better understanding of situation. At the beginning (on page 4) the text was ‘My grandfather was a young man when he left his home in Japan and went to see the world†. On this page it shows the grandfather in Japanese clothes and the background had very dull colours because he is still in the ‘Old World’. On the next page it shows the transition to the ‘New World’. The background colours have changed from dull to bright and he had changed into European clothes. The wave that looks very unsteady shows the ‘New World’. All this happens when you want to ‘see the world. On page 17, there is a picture of the grandfather’s daughter holding a pram with a European doll sitting in it. The text that goes with the page was ‘As his daughter grew, my grandfather began to think about his own childhood. He thought about his old friends’. In the picture the author shows the contrast between the Asian girl and the European girl using different clothing and the cultural difference (seen through the colours of the hairs). When compared, the grandfather began to remember how his old friends in Japan were when they were little. This illustrates ‘†¦think about his own childhood. He thought about his old friends.’ Question 5. Discuss the attitudes and values of the text and your personal response to these. Question 6. Describe at least one link you can make between this book and another/other texts you have read or viewed. How do the texts compare in terms of the ideas presented and how do you respond to these ideas? One of the pages in this book makes us realise that we often label Japan as the enemy in World War II, whilst they were also the victim and had also suffered a large amount of devastation. In the film Pearl Harbour, one of the scenes was Japan bombing Pearl Harbour. This only shows the negative side of Japan, where they were attackers, but it did not show them as the victims suffering from the disaster. This movie is persuading the audience to blame Japan for the damages of the war, where Japan had to go through the emotional breakdowns and physical injuries. Even though the book tells us not to blame Japan for the damages and the movie shows us that Japan was the enemy in World War II, there is still a link between the two texts and that is after a war majority of the participating countries will have, no matter large or small, havocs. I think, because of this, we should not blame a certain country for the occurrence of the war, and should not blame any country since the countries that participated are both enemies and victims of the war.

Ethical Dimension of Private Corporations: Products and Danger and the Media Essay

Communication is the bedrock of any successful relationship. This doesn’t only apply to individuals as social beings but also groups both formal and informal. A breakdown in sound communication is often the source of many conflicts and at times crisis. Brad Fitch concurs with this in his book, the Media Relations Handbook of Public for Agencies, Associations, Nonprofits and Congress, when he states that communication is the conveying of message between two people. And that in public relations the message is conveyed through various vehicles, which are otherwise referred to as the public relations practitioner’s tools. These tools may vary from one organization to another but there are some basic tools that are common to most public relations shops. (23) In our contemporary world, the most reliable mode of conveying information is unarguably the media. This is because the media has diversified its mode of communication making itself accessible to audiences even in the most remote places. Above all, the media enjoys the trust of the public because it serves not only as the watch dog but also the mouth piece of the society. Alison Theaker also agrees with this fact when he alludes in his book, The Public Relations Handbook, which one of the reason public relations practitioners use media relations to get their message across is that the media plays crucial role in the forming public opinion. (Chapter 10) Subsequently, any media outlet worth its salt would utterly desist from engaging in any practice that would bring their dignity in question, and particularly so in the eyes of the public. One such practice is hinging their trust on a skewed public relation practice as the source of their news. It is thus prudent for any public relations practitioners of any organization to observe integrity in the course of their duty. This will boast the image of the organization in the perception of its various publics and more particularly the media. An organization has a lot to reap by presenting itself as a reliable source of news to the media. In any case, one of the most objective ways a media outlet can report on an organization is when they get the information through its public relations practitioners. Therefore how an organization uses the media to communicate to its other publics is of utmost importance. This not only determines the willingness of the media to cooperate but also how the targeted publics will respond. What then are the criteria an organization can employ to positively and effectively use or work with the media to reach out to its publics? Media Relations Defined The line delineating both media relation and public relations is not fine. Journalists often use the two terms interchangeably. But for starters, it is important to find out how the two terms marry and even differ. In Media Relations: Issues and Strategies, Jane Johnston argues that media relation is much more than just using the media to reach out to the targeted publics through writing press releases, and fielding media conferences. Indeed, the tenets of media relation consist of an insight on why we make communication choices and put them into practice. Therefore, a concrete theoretical underpinning is crucial for media relation, which in essence covers a broad spectrum of public relations. (28) However Johnston points out that before media relation can be theorized, it is important to get to the knowledge base of what consists of mass media itself and also what incorporate a deep understanding of the Fourth Estate, as it is often referred to and ultimately, the question of media ownership. (28) This is important in the sense that the ownership of a media outlet goes a long way to affects its objectivity or subjectivity on certain issues, especially political. In turn, this determines the audiences that will continue using that media channel as a source of news and information. And in cases a media outlet takes a radical, even controversial stand, it definitely scares away some of its audiences that don’t necessarily buy their opinion. A public relation practitioner using such a media outlet to convey its message should bear in mind that he/she is likely to miss reaching to the target audiences effectively as some, especially those contesting the media house stand may not be looking at it as a reliable source of news and information, leave alone using it. Sriramesh and Vercic agree with this in their book, The Global Public Relations Handbook: Theory, Research, and Practice. They claim that maintaining effective media relations demand that the public relations professionals understand the people who control the media outlet and whether such control does extend into editorial content. This is because some media houses operate free from the control of their people who own the outlets whereas others are only partly free. (13) Effective Application of Media Relations Every organization has communication needs by the virtue of having publics that it needs to communicate with. This could be during the launch of a certain new product or publicizing the details of an ensuing crisis. The media, though it is one of an organization’s public acts as a crucial bridge between an organization and its other publics. How well the media is used to reach out to the other publics by an organization goes a long way to determine the success of the public relations practice. For starters, the public relations department needs to come up with a campaign. This could either be to correct the image of the organization, which could be dwindling in the eyes of the public or it could be explain the features and advantages of the new product in the market. Alison Theaker points out in his book, Public Relations Handbook that to ensure the success of any such campaign, the first step that a public relations practitioner must take is to get their issue(s) into the media agenda. This is crucial because the media influence how people think. Therefore, if the public cannot buy the organization’s point of view, they will inevitably rely on the media’s point of view, even though it could be a garbled account. Often the media report inaccurately in cases where there is a crisis in an organization and there is limited news available from the public relations department. In the modern world, the ease with which varied points of views of a certain crisis reach people has increased considerably with the advancement of technology, the internet being the major source. However, most people still get most information through the media. Therefore, if the public relations practitioner of an organization is the main source of information on a subject, for instance, the launching of a new product or the fall out between the employees and the establishment, it is possible for them to shape the tone of debate about the product. The effort of getting commanding the media agenda is what Brad refers to as pitching a story. He points out that public relations practitioner of any organization has an agenda and wants the media houses to promote his/her messages. And if one wants to advance the goals of his/her organization then he/she must expend ample time by pitching story ideas to journalists. This demands preparations, the extent of which depends on the complexity of the story. The steps involved in pitching a story include: first narrowing the topic. Second is organizing and compiling the documents that may be needed to supplement the story: this could be previous reports, the organization’ in-house publications, information by the experts from a particular department in the organization. Then follows the development of talking points on the most news worthy aspects of the story; they need to be jotted down in advance and confirmed as valid arguments by the relevant experts in the organization. Then after determining the necessity of interviewing the management is when the news people can be called. Worth noting is that, it is imperative that the public relations practitioner succeed to get the attention of the media in order for him/her to get into their agenda. Apart from demonstrating themselves as credible sources of news, the public relations practitioners have to adequately prepare the message that they intend to bring to the public domain. The media is in business and wouldn’t work on any information that doesn’t fall within their criterion of news worthiness. The public relations practitioners should therefore not present to the media any message that is outside their definition of news. Such messages won’t be publicized by the media. The process of message development is one of the most difficult aspects of a public relations practitioner’s job because it demands savvy political skills, coordination among diverse interests within an organization and most importantly creativity. Developing a message and communication plan is the tangible beginning of the partnership between a public relation office and the media. 49) In order for an appropriate message to be created, the specific characteristics of the targeted public should be borne in mind, without forgetting their specific communication needs like language appropriateness and the media channel. The advantages of taking into consideration the above requirements before setting out to design a message cannot be overlooked. The failure to address them in a message means that a campaign will most definitely fail to achieve its goals. A message, according to Brad Fisch’s definition is a precise elaboration of an idea or a vision with the intent of bringing out a broad theme or to mobilize people to carry out a specific action. A good message, therefore, must be short and clear as this enables easy comprehension; it must also bear a value based image: this enhances its reception to the targeted audience. And ultimately it must connect with the targeted audience in a meaningful way. In a market place, Brad points out; a slogan sums up a product’s image. The message development does vary on the basis of the particular type of organization under which it is being crafted. The way a manufacturing company designs it message is not the way a communication company will design their. This is because the publics of the two organizations do vary, hence the particular channel and language to reach them effectively. There are two categories of messages which Brad outlines. This he defines as strategic and campaign messages. Strategic messages are broad in themes, they also bear ideas, which guide and shape all communication processes. Such messages are composed of general ideas. To add on that, they do not have a clearly measurable outcome and their goals may or may not fit into a limited time period. Strategic messages come in the form of company marketing or branding in a commercial set up; whereas, in a public affairs environment, the strategic message is tied to the overall, long-term mission of the organization. (Media Relations Handbook, 50) Campaign message on the other hand, consists of messages that predominantly intend to mobilize publics towards carrying out a certain activity. For instance, a telephone organization could be losing oodles of money through vandals who are stealing cables and booths. This heinous work is definitely interrupting the operations of the company and even affection its various publics. Using the media, the public relations office of the company can come up with a message soliciting help from the public to stop the vandalism. This message could consist of a passionate appeal to the public to forward any such vandals, with a promise of a reward and protection. The message could also outline the effects of vandalism to the public at large, one of which is the interruption of communication. In sum, a campaign message is a subset of a strategic message. This is due to the fact that its composition is made up of specific ideas. To add on that, it has a definite time limit or in other words, a particular practical result, which usually is a measurable outcome. A campaign message often results in legislations to curb a vice or legalize an idea. (51) Through the interactions between an organization and the media, the public relation facilitates a central part in presenting words and images to society which in turn shapes perceptions. Due to that, one fact that should be taken into account during the development of the message it is important that the public relations practitioner be in the know of how news is manufactured. He /she must be conversant with the qualities that add up to a news story: press men won’t get interested with a story that contains no news. These qualities include prominence, proximity, timeliness, impact, conflict, novelty, money and human interest. These news values frame an event and render it comprehensible to the public in terms of ideological system. They form the basis on which reporters use to select what makes news or not. ( Johnston, Media Relations, 29) After developing the message, the next stage is reaching out to the media which will in turn pass it over to the other publics. One way this is done is through press releases. Brad argues that press release is the fundamental tool in public relations. One of the benefits of press releases is that they form short, clear, historical records and policy positions, announcements and events of an organization. The sole goal of a press release is to convince journalists to do a story from its contents. Previously the main audience of press releases was the journalists. But technology, particularly the use of the website has nowadays expanded audiences of press release beyond journalists. In order to quickly get the attention of journalists the press release precisely proves that it’s worth their pursuit. In this case, the wording of the headline and the intro are of utmost importance. (25) The other ways through which the message can be sent out to the publics is through letters to the editor in newspapers and magazines, op-eds, advertorials or press conferences. In this discuss, we won’t focus on them for they in essence seem to play a peripheral role as the modes of communication in media relations. The successful development of the message is the threshold of successful communication. Nonetheless, far from creating a punchy message that is acceptable with the media and sending it out, it advantageous for the public relations practitioner to have an in-depth knowledge about the media industry itself. Contrary to what it seems, the news media isn’t only made up of one established conglomerate. It is rather made up of a range of different elements, and within them are many individual workers who work as independent thinkers. Thus, the news media should be considered in the context of individual news worker. This will enable a public relations practitioner to adequately developing and enhancing professional relationships with media practitioners. ( Johnston, Media Relations 42) Getting to know press men as individuals does create a fertile ground for the prosperity of media relations. For one, once a cordial relationship is established between the two, a public relation practitioner will not be trying to reach out to a stranger to get help communicate with the publics of his/her organization. Neither will he/she be having an opportunity to compromise the professionalism of his/her work or that of the press people. He/she will be enjoying an opportunity to be explained to the public through media ‘friends’ who are willing to relay his/her point of view about the product or crisis in question. Another way to enhance a robust media relation in an organization is by creating a clear cut structure of the public relations department. This will involve the job description of each and every personnel in the department. Besides erasing the duplication of duties, such an arrangement grants the onus of communicating to the media to only one person. This helps to improve consistency in the message that is reaching the publics through the media; this personnel is what Brad refers to a principal. He argues that in any public affairs-related operation there should a person who should be the leader and thus the spokes person of the organization. Much of the communication that an organization is responsible for creating will therefore have to flow through him/her. It is recommended that that principal be conversant with almost all the activities of the organization and even know the people in charge at all levels of the organization. (Brad, Media Relations Handbook, 5) Johnston posits that media relations are mostly considered not a complex issue as management; or as urgent an issue as crisis management; neither as personal as community relations nor as specialized as financial relations but rather a ‘soft’ part of public relations. However, since media relations plays a crucial in each of the areas of public relations , it is more useful to regard it as providing important access point and avenues for the industry as a whole. Subsequently, a strong working relationship with the media translates into smoother practices right across the spectrum of public relations activities and functions. The value of media relations can hardly be overlooked. The media have come to define themselves as a site where politics and public life are played out. Due to that any issue that is not validated by the media is considered less important, as not having any significance on the public agenda. The media, therefore, helps to position a person, issue, event or organization within the context of public life. Consequently, the value of media relations lies in tapping the media’s radar and ultimately the media’s agenda. (Jane Johnston, Media Relations: Issues and Strategies, 11)

A Holistic Approach to Ambulatory Care

The use of technology is being adopted extensively in the healthcare field as funds increase due to policy changes, especially HITECH, and the need to implement electronic health records (EHR) is recognized. Promote consumer / patient access and participation in health care portals (Sackett, 2013). The use of technology will enable patients to track important health information. This may be useful to change the care of the primary care provider, which means that unnecessary attempts to provide a past medical history to the physician's clinic can be eliminated. This document describes the development of medical care in the outpatient clinical setting and the future direction, the explosive development of technology, the change in the payment pattern, the role of nursing staff, the challenges facing nursing professionals and the characteristics of outpatient experts I will outline it. Medical reform, Affordable medical law, Implementation of care adjustment as a strategy to improve hea lth and prevent re-hospitalization, and Transition from volume-based care to value-based care, interest in outpatient care environment Is rising. Current and future medical website Specialized outpatient care is a complex and multifaceted occupation that includes both independent and collaborative work.The comprehensive practice of outpatient care is based on a wide knowledge of nursing and health science and it is clinically applied to the care process Expertise: Nurses use evidence-based information at various outpatient medical facilities to achieve and secure patient safety and care quality while improving patient outcomes. In 2001, this professional occupation announced a series of outpatient care and nursing knowledge revised in 2006 for the first time. Outpatient nursing core course (AAACN, 2001). This core course is still an important and relevant resource, and many nurses use it to lead a place for outpatient clinical practice. Specialized outpatient care is a complex and m ultifaceted occupation that includes both independent and collaborative work.The comprehensive practice of outpatient care is based on a wide knowledge of nursing and health science and it is clinically applied to the care process Expertise: Nurses use evidence-based information at various outpatient medical facilities to achieve and secure patient safety and care quality while improving patient outcomes.

Envirnomental Analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Envirnomental Analysis - Essay Example First, the slow growth of houses brought a significant downturn on retail sales in terms of appliances, furniture and home furnishings. Consumer spending is also affected by stricter lending policies now being pursued by lending institutions due to default in mortgages and payments. Other economic factor affecting the industry is the high cost of gasoline which slices the consumers’ budget for household expenses and retail spending. Most likely , the following factors will pose a negative effect on the trend of industry sales and will be the trend for 20009, Punkett Research said.. The impact of high consumer debt levels will constrain spending. * The growing trend of expenditures can be influenced by lifestyles as shown in Plunkett Research. Consumers trend in spending supports healthy lifestyle with products that has more high value, long life, environment friendly, and low in consumption. The fast pace of technology has moved retail selling into new direction in selling. For instance, we are seeing now the rapid growth of on line shopping. Internet connections make shopping convenient for consumers. Report said that in 2008, internet business of retail selling have kept about 100 million consumers in their homes and business. Sales raked by Amazon in 2007 was $14.8 billion higher than in 2006 of $107 billion in 2006. A Shop.org. survey mentioned in Plunkets research t said that in 2008, on line shopping of 84.6 million consumers accounted for $ 72.0 million sales in 2006 and $ 60.7 million in 2007. Not to be outdone, Wal=Mart has joined the bandwagon in the e-commerce trading. In 1985, at the tune of $4 billion, company developed software that will give information on consumer behavior through the bar codes system. This information enabled the company to foresee demographic changes. Today, demographic changes may be seen thru the behavior of buying patterns of

Seismic Base Isolation Technology From Okumura Corporation Research Proposal

Seismic Base Isolation Technology From Okumura Corporation - Research Proposal Example Construction companies are required to meet building specifications by authorities to ensure safety in times of seismic activity. This threat to business may be transformed into an opportunity to achieve and maintain market leadership by Platinum Builders Inc.  through importation of the best technology against seismic activity; base isolation devices, from Okumura Corporation in Japan. The challenges that exist in international trade especially in terms of communication and legal considerations are all surmountable. Base isolation devices from Okumura Corporation are of high quality and meet the accreditation standards in Japan hence they are safe for import. They assure safety, low insurance charges and continuity in businesses and livelihoods; qualities that a construction company should aim to be associated with. It is recommended therefore that Platinum Builders Inc. seizes this opportunity to develop into an industry leader in construction. Introduction Leading companies strategically position themselves to achieve and maintain market leadership through SWOT analyses. Spotting opportunities for growth in the environment is an important aspect of business strategy especially in the construction industry where differentiation and overall cost leadership may be difficult to achieve in the bid to generate and maintain the competitive advantage. Platinum Builders Inc. may, however, find that an analysis of its threats presents an opportunity for growth when an international perspective is drawn into consideration. Background: Platinum Builders Inc. and the California Constructions Industry Outlook The outlook of the building  construction industry in California tends to incline towards considerations of seismic activity in the construction of structures. This is understandable considering the fact that the State of California lies in a region that is earthquake prone.

International Business (Globalization) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

International Business (Globalization) - Essay Example International businesses are at present largely restricted to their where they originated from, only if we consider their overall business operations and activity; they stay heavily 'nationally rooted' and carry on to be multinational, to a certain extent than translational ,organizations . (Palmisano 2006) While full globalization in this organizational sense may not have occurred on a large scale, these large multinational corporations still have considerable economic and cultural power. Multinationals can impact upon communities in very diverse places. First, they look to establish or contract operations (production, service and sales) in countries and regions where they can exploit cheaper labour and resources. While this can mean additional wealth flowing into those communities, this form of 'globalization' entails significant inequalities. It can moreover, it may lead to outsized scale job loss in especially for those whose industries were in the past located. The wages paid in the recent settings can be nominal, and worker's privileges and conditions pitiable. For instance, a 1998 study of exceptional economic zones in China showed that manufacturers for organizations such as Ralph Lauren, Adidas and Nike were the ones paying low wages, to the extent of 13 cents per hour Second, multinationals continuously look new or else under-exploited markets. They look to increase sales - often by trying to create new needs among different target groups. One example here has been the activities of tobacco companies in southern countries. Another has been the development of the markets predominantly populated by children and young people. There is increasing evidence that this is having a deep effect; that our view of childhood (especially in northern and 'developed' countries) is increasingly the product of 'consumer-media' culture. Furthermore, that culture is underpinned in the sweated work of the 'mothered' children of the so-called 'Third World'. With the aid of various media, the commodity form has increasingly become central to the life of the young of the West, constructing their identities and relationships, their emotional and social worlds. Adults and schools have been negatively positioned in this matrix to the extent that youthful power and pleasure are constructed as that which happens elsewhere - away from adults and schools and mainly with the aid of commodities. Of course such commodification of everyday life is hardly new. Writers like Erich Fromm were commenting on the phenomenon in the early 1950s. However, there has been a significant acceleration and intensification (and globalization) with the rise of the brand (see below) and a heavier focus on seeking to condition children and young people to construct their identities around brands. Third, and linked to the above, we have seen the erosion of pubic space by corporate activities. Significant areas of leisure, for example, have moved from more associational forms like clubs to privatized, commercialized activity. For example, charts this with

Economics of Race and Gender Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Economics of Race and Gender - Assignment Example The various chapters show the inter-related dependence of the gender based equity amongst the adult members of the family unit In the third chapter, Blau et al. (2009) claim that the family continues to act as an economic unit where the adults remain the major decision makers and make rational decisions through informed choices for the welfare of the whole family rather than for individuals. It is especially true for semi urban and rural areas where the family is intrinsic part of social structure and still acts as the integrated economic unit. The challenges of the fast changing social equations and societal values have also brought forth the gender biases as major controversial issues. The chapter reasserts that the significant contribution of gender stratification to economy within and outside the family. The chapter four elaborates that in the home economics of the changing society, the distribution of time between household and labor market is closely linked to home labor time where the market goods are changed into commodities that are utilized for the maximum good of the family. The authors assert that the time spent on home production is as important as the time spent on paid work that helps to buy goods from the market. They have redefined home production efforts of the women at home and made them as vital part of home economics. They emphasize the gender equity amongst the working population vis-Ã  -vis wage, work distribution and consequently influencing consumption pattern of the goods produced. Thus the authors have given a new perspective to equitable distribution to the gender based economic contribution within and outside the home. The fifth chapter clearly demonstrates the new changing perspectives vis-Ã  -vis gender based stratification of job and emphasis on gender equality. Blau et al. consider that the discrepancy in the roles of

The Human Resource Function of Harrison Brothers Corporation Assignment

The Human Resource Function of Harrison Brothers Corporation - Assignment Example They also want to convert the empty spaces into selling spots and want to stock and sell the in demand brands. Moreover, they are also looking to better forecast their sales and maintain better inventory records by using computer systems. Also, they want to increase the productivity of their staff. Ans 3: Harrison is headed by an Executive Vice President and General Manager. The Branch Store Manager works under him. Within the branch, Harrison has divided it’s human resources into three departments: HR, Sales and Operations. The sales department is itself divided into three departments each headed by a Sales Manager. Each Sales Manager looks after the sales of a number of sales categories. The HR manager has four people working under him responsible for assistance, training and payroll processing. The Operations Manager oversees five employees responsible for receiving, maintenance, supplies, security and accounting. Ans 4: Exhibit 1.4 presents a summary of the responses made by HR and Store Managers on how much importance they give to the various HR functions. In some of the functions, both of them have given equal importance, which means that they will support and approve the HR department’s activities in these areas. Store Managers give more importance to areas such as compensation and training and development, while Ans 5: At Harrison Brothers, the HR department was not up to the mark in its performance. However, since McCain has joined she has taken measures to reorganize the HR department and upgrade its performance. Given the strategic objectives of Harrison Brothers, I believe they need to hire a more educated and trained workforce. Rather than hiring sales people in general which they can place in any category, they should hire sales people who can perform well in specific areas, such as women clothing, furniture, house wares etc. This would make the sales force more focused and allow them to specialize in

Classical and Romantic Era styles in music Essay

Classical and Romantic Era styles in music - Essay Example The importance of Les Six in the 1920s of France was important not only because of the changes in classical music. There were also attempts to express the political and social changes that were occurring within France and at a global level. France was currently experiencing the political movements of revolution and war, specifically which began to emerge in the late 1800s. The time period which led to more experimentation was after World War I. The general ideology of those that were in France during this time was based on finding a sense of freedom from the past of politics with an understanding of the complexities from the suffering of war as well as the new philosophies based on freedom. This led to the exploratory nature of the music and the new expressions which showed the modern complexity of the time. The war, as well as the corruptions in politics was then able to guide in new philosophies and ideologies into a sense of modernism1. With the changes in politics, were also alte rations in identity among the French culture. This was based on the ideas of nationalism, specifically which expressed a new ideology by understanding that France needed to regain an identity outside of the wars that were being fought. The ideal of patriotism of France, as well as the identity of changing the cultural aspects that were associated with the France became the main objectives. This was combined with the concept of modernity, specifically which came from the growth of the industrial era.

The Power of Knowledge in Douglasss Learning to Read and Write Essay

The Power of Knowledge in Douglasss Learning to Read and Write - Essay Example That knowledge is power is already a clichà ©, but it is most essential for the disempowered sectors of society because they can use what they learned to improve their conditions in life. Douglass becomes miserable because of having full awareness of his wretched conditions. As a slave, he is not a human being. He has no freedoms and rights. His master controls his life, even the lives of his children. Therefore, he is more like a beast with no identity and future than an individual with a deeper purpose in life. Before realizing what his learning is for, Douglass sinks to anxiety because reading exposed him to the ills of the institution of slavery. Fortunately, he learns about the abolitionist movement, and he focuses his energy on running away and becoming free. Furthermore, Douglass understands that knowledge will help him in his quest for freedom. Literacy will be his ticket to freedom, as well as his means for success as a free man. His plan of learning how to read and write f irst, before running away, shows that he is an intelligent person, who knows long-term planning. Indeed, if he remains illiterate, he can easily be manipulated by others who know how to read and write. Douglass uses his knowledge of the fruits of literacy in producing long-term plans, which proves the supporters of slavery that blacks are not an inferior race. Their weaknesses, if present, are not inherent to them, but are products of the conditioning of slavery, so that they will stay ignorant and lacking in initiative for self-development. Douglass breaks away from the stereotype of the passive slave because of his knowledge that as a human being, he has rights and freedoms. He must and should be free, so he does all he can to prepare for the fateful day of his emancipation. Douglass demonstrates ingenuity and a firm resolution in reaching his dreams, because knowledge is not sufficient to be free. He is determined to learn literacy, but he has to be extra careful. He is resourcef ul enough to pay bread to street children who taught him how to read. By bragging to other children that he knows how to write, he also learned writing skills. At the same time, Douglass is observant of his surroundings. He studies letters from ships, which shows his determination to maximize his resources, however limited they are. Moreover, the copybooks of his young master proved to be invaluable. He practices how to write, while his masters are away. Douglass clearly does not know how to give up. He knows the painful punishment, perhaps even death, which awaits him; if his owners learned that he was studying how to write. But he no longer minds his short-term need for safety, when he has the larger long-term goal of freedom. The human being in him naturally wants to be free, and slavery cannot stop him forever. He builds his knowledge and establishes contacts and resources, which will one day help him to be free. In his mind, Douglass has a singular mission: to be free and to be a human being with dignity once more. Education and slavery do not mix, as Douglass learns from his masters, because slavery is disempowering, while education

What is a monopoly Essay Example for Free

What is a monopoly Essay Monopoly is at the opposite end of the spectrum of market models from perfect competition. A monopoly firm has no rivals. It is the only firm in its industry. There are no close substitutes for the good or service a monopoly produces. Not only does a monopoly firm have the market to itself, but it also need not worry about other firms entering. In the case of monopoly, entry by potential rivals is prohibitively difficult. A monopoly does not take the market price as given; it determines its own price. It selects from its demand curve the price that corresponds to the quantity the firm has chosen to produce in order to earn the maximum profit possible. In assuming there is one firm in a market, we assume there are no other firms producing goods or services that could be considered part of the same market as that of the monopoly firm. The result is a model that gives us important insights into the nature of the choices of firms and their impact on the economy. There are some Advantages of a Monopoly. The Monopolies avoids duplications and hence wastage of resources. Enjoys economics of scale, due to it being the only supplier of the product or service in the market, makes many profits and be used for research and development to maintain their status as a monopoly. They also use price discrimination to benefit the weaker economic section of society. To avoid competition, they can afford to invest in the latest technology and machinery. There are some Disadvantages of a Monopoly. Monopolies have poor levels of service, there is no consumer sovereignty, the consumers are charged high prices for such low quality goods, and lack of competition could lead to low quality goods, as well as out dated goods. First off, any market type can see super normal profits in the short-run. What is more important is what happens in the end. Pure monopolies are not the only monopoly that can make profits. Natural Monopoly or a price discriminating monopoly can make profits as well. The only difference between them is â€Å"why† they are monopolies to begin with. Oligopolies are not monopolies, although they do tend to make above normal profits. Monopolistic competition does not yield these types of profits in the end. Economic profit goes to zero here in the end because there is a lack of barriers here to prevent competition from entering.

The Nursing Shortage and the Nursing Work Environment Essay Example for Free

The Nursing Shortage and the Nursing Work Environment Essay 1. Introduction 1.1 Nursing as challenging profession: significant physical and psychological demands on nurses of all levels 1.2 Qualified nurses as the core key to success in the delivery of healthcare services 1.3 Qualified nursing staff, hospitals, clinics, nursing homes, and other essential healthcare services as contribution to modern world Problem Statement 2.1 The current situation with shortage of qualified nurses in the USA 2.2 The year of 2004: the positive shifts in dealing with nursing shortage 2.3 Population aging and retiring nurses as the main reason of severe nursing shortage Research Question 3.1 The impact of job-related stress on health care organizations and qualified nurses 3.2 Measures to be taken to alleviate job-related stress for nurses 3.3 Reduction of job-related stress as the solution to nursing shortage Research Hypotheses 4.1 Hypothesis 1: Nurses will indicate that they experience job-related stress. 4.2 Hypothesis 2: Job-related stress is a factor in a nurses decision to leave nursing. 4.3 Hypothesis 3: Nurses who have learned to manage their stress will be more likely to continue their careers. Literature Review Job-related stress may have serious implications for patient safety. Increased patient loads, for example, have been associated with elevated stress levels, the increased likelihood of an accident, and a greater risk of the nurse being involved in a medical malpractice lawsuit (Miller, 2004). One study found that 79% of RNs believed that the shortage of qualified nurses has already affected the quality of patient care (Buerhaus,   Donelan,   Ulrich,   Linda Norman,   et al, 2005). Although some studies have found that stress levels may be affected by the mode of nursing, other research has indicated similar levels of stress in functional nursing, team nursing, and primary nursing settings (Mà ¤kinen, Kivimà ¤ki, Elovainio, Virtanen, Bond, 2003). Sources of Stress Stress in nursing comes from physical and mental exertion while working with patients and the emotional stress that comes from dealing with injured, sick, and dying people. Job stress may also affected by staff reductions, especially if those reductions result in increased responsibilities for the remaining staff members (Hertting, Nilsson, Theorell, Larsson, 2004, p. 148). The long-term effects of staff reductions include feelings of distrust towards the employer; (2) concurrent demands and challenges; (3) professional ambiguity; (4) unmet desires for collaboration with other professionals; and (5) efforts to gain control (Hertting, Nilsson, Theorell, Larsson, p. 148) For many nurses, some job-related stress may come from internal sources. Antai-Otong (2001) observed that one pervasive cause of stress among nurses is the feeling that nurses must do everything for everyone all of the time and be perfect while doing it. These unrealistic expectations for perfection may lead to chronic anger, hostility, or repressed aggression, especially if the individual lacks sufficient coping skills to address these emotions (Antai-Otong). To cope with this stress, Antai-Otong recommended that nurses receive training in conflict management, anger management, self-renewal techniques, assertive communication, and other forms of creative stress management. Finally, stress also appears to be affected by age and experience. In studies comparing stress and job satisfaction of older nurses with that of younger nurses, older nurses with more years experience showed less stress and reported more positive experiences as a nurse than their younger counterparts (Ernst, Messmer, Franco, Gonzalez, 2004). Younger nurses reported concerns over compensation, workload, and lack of recognition (Ernst, et al). Ernst, et al., (p. 222) speculated that older nurses had less reason to be worried about income than their younger counterparts because the older nurses were paid more. They also speculated that the expectations and goals of the nurses in the study had become more realistic as they matured, resulting in greater job satisfaction (Ernst, et al., p. 225). Providing Ways to Improve Retention Incentives may be used to motivate nurses to improve their performance or to stay with an employer. Incentives do not necessarily have to be monetary. In some cases, non-monetary incentives such as the opportunity to work in a positive work environment may outweigh relatively small financial incentives. Other incentives that may be used to encourage nurses to stay are educational opportunities, flexible scheduling, health and safety considerations, and the nature of the overall organizational culture (Cohen, 2006). Many nurses are concerned with the balance of their professional and personal responsibilities. Quality of work life (QWL) has been defined as the balance between the individuals professional responsibilities and personal life (Ming-Yi Kernohan, 2006). QWL has been linked to job satisfaction and improved retention. Factors that affect the QWL of nurses include socioeconomic factors, demographic characteristics of the individual nurse (e.g., age, marital status, and other personal characteristics), organizational aspects, work aspects, human relation aspects, and the opportunity for self-actualization through nursing (Ming-Yi Kernohan). Of these, the individuals demographic characteristics and the socioeconomic status of the health care facility and the surrounding area are beyond the control of the organization. Other factors, such as providing opportunities for self-actualization, may be affected by organizational policies but are not exclusively within the domain of the organization. The remaining factors – organizational aspects, work aspects, and human relations aspects – are within the control of the organization. Organizations that wish to improve their retention rates for high-performing nurses may wish to examine how these factors can be adjusted to improve the QWL of nurses working within the organization. Lambert, Lambert, and Yamase (2004) noted that stress is often associated with uncertainty and a lack of information. Providing nurses with information, training, and continuing education can help alleviate these feelings and may help to reduce the overall levels of stress. Lambert, at al. also recommends exercise, physical exertion, and expressing feelings to an inanimate object as appropriate stress-reduction techniques. Environmental changes, such as brightening the environment with flowers and other aesthetically appealing items, may also help reduce the stress levels in the workplace (Lamber, et al.). Finally, Lambert, et al. suggested searching for any possible philosophical or spiritual implications that might help the individual to understand and to cope with the stresses that come along with patient care. Conclusion There is a strong reciprocal relationship between job stress and nurse retention. As nurses within a given facility begin to experience increased stress, the likelihood that some will quit or look for a job elsewhere appears to increase. Consequently, the work loads of the remaining nurses increase, which ratchets up the stress levels, resulting in more nurses leaving the organization. This cycle is not limited to organizations, but also appears to occur within the nursing profession. References Antai-Otong, D. (2001). Creative Stress-Management Techniques For Self-Renewal. Dermatology Nursing, 13, 1, 31-37. Retrieved July 27, 2007, from Academic Search Premier Database. Beaudoin, L., Edgar, L. (2003). Hassles: Their Importance to Nurses Quality of Work Life.   Nursing Economic$, 21, 3, 106-114. Retrieved July 26, 2007, from Academic Search Premier Database. Buerhaus, P., Donelan, K., Ulrich, B., Norman, L., Williams, M., Dittus, R. (2005). Hospital RNs and CNOs Perceptions of the Impact of the Nursing Shortage on the Quality of Care. Nursing Economics, 23, 5, 214-221. Retrieved July 27, 2007, from ProQuest Database Cohen, J. (2006). The Aging Nursing Workforce: How to Retain Experienced Nurses. Journal of Healthcare Management, 51, 4, 233-245. Retrieved July 27, 2007, from Academic Search Premier. Ernst, M., Messmer, P., Franco, M., Gonzalez, J. (2004). Nurses Job Satisfaction, Stress, and Recognition in a Pediatric Setting. Pediatric Nursing, 30, 3, 219-227. Retrieved July 27, 2007, from Academic Search Premier Database. Hertting, A., Nilsson, K., Theorell, T., Larsson, U. (2004). Downsizing and Reorganization: Demands, Challenges, and Ambiguity for Registered Nurses. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 45, 2, 145-154. Retrieved July 27, 2007, from Academic Search Premier Database. Lambert, V., Lambert, C., Yamase, H. (2004). Psychological Hardiness, Workplace Stress and Related Stress Reduction Strategies. Nursing Health Sciences, 5, 2, 181-183. Retrieved July 27, 2007, from Academic Search Premier Database. Mà ¤kinen, A., Kivimà ¤ki M., Elovainio, M., Virtanen, M. Bond, S. (2003). Organization of Nursing Care As a Determinant of Job Satisfaction Among Hospital Nurses.   Journal of nursing management, 11, 5, 299-306. Retrieved July 27, 2007, from Academic Search Premier Database. Miller, D. (2004). Where Have All the Nurses Gone? The Impact of the Nursing Shortage on American Healthcare. Association of Operating Room Nurses. AORN Journal, 80, 1, 141. Retrieved July 27, 2007, from ProQuest Database. Ming-Yi H., Kernohan, G. (2006). Dimensions of Hospital Nurses’ Quality of Working Life.   Journal of Advanced Nursing, 54, 1, 120-131. Retrieved July 27, 2007, from Academic Search Premier. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (2002). Projected Supply, Demand, and Shortages of Registered Nurses: 2000-2020. Department of Health and Human Services, Health Resources and Services Administration, Bureau of Health Professions, National Center for Health Workforce Analysis. Retrieved July 27, 2007, from http://www.ahca.org/research/rnsupply_demand.pdf U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (2004). The Registered Nurse Population. Findings from the March 2004 National Sample Survey of Registered Nurses. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Health Resources and Services Administration, Bureau of Health Professions. Retrieved July 27, 2007, from ftp://ftp.hrsa.gov/bhpr/workforce/0306rnss.pdf

Human Resources Reputation and Effectiveness | Analysis

Human Resources Reputation and Effectiveness | Analysis â€Å"Human Resources Reputation and Effectiveness.† SUMMARY OF THIS ARTICLE This issue of Human Resource Management Review considers the past, present, and future of HRM theory and research, exploring how these issues have considerable potential to enhance organizational efficiency and effectiveness. The compilation includes suchthemes as identifying the shortfalls of the science of HRM; predicting, understanding, and influencing the behavior of individuals in organizations; and the status of research on compensation in organizations. Organizational theorists have suggested that reputation is one of the few resources that can give firms a sustainable competitive advantage, because it is viewed as a non-tradable, non-substitutable, non-imitable, resource that can be managed. HR-firm performance linkage examines the impact of an overall set of HR practices on firm performance. This perspective advanced the literature from examining the effect of a single HR practice on performance, to examining a set of practices that work together synergistically. Another perspective explains the positive findings between HRM and firm performance by emphasizing the role HR plays in implementing strategies. To effectively implement a particular strategy, HR practices must â€Å"fit† with the strategic goals of the firm. The two studies indicate that HR reputation does have an impact on the larger overarching image of the organization. It is important to have an HR reputation of fairness, and to advertise this quality to important stakeholders. It is important to examine the more intermediate linkages between HR reputation and firm reputation and performance. It would also be interesting to examine negative HR reputation signals, and their impact on the reputation of the organization. Employees are likely to recommend an organization for employment when that organization is fully committed to work-family policies. As human capital continues to gain credence as a critical resource, organizations have viewed their HR departments as holding the key to unlocking this important resource. Thus, the power of HR has increased over the past several years, and should continue to grow. In light of the foregoing review and evaluation, and the strengths and limitations of prior work on HR reputation and effectiveness the authors have proposed some directions for theory and research in this area that they believe could result in useful and productive streams of work. â€Å"Effectiveness Index† can be one of the tools to identify firms with very progressive or reputable HR functions. Also, the need to determine what might be the underlying dimensions of HR reputation, and, if multi-dimensional, are all dimensions equally important for effectiveness, or are they differentially weighted? Firms bring about this publicity by taking non-conforming actions and proactively seeking to manage impressions to facilitate their own celebrity to the degree that celebrity increases access to critical resources such as human capital, capital markets, and raw materials, celebrity status for the firm increases a firms competitive advantage. Many firms such as Johnson Johnson, Starbucks, and Hewlett-Packard, frequently hit these lists year after year and are on several lists each year. Many of these firms are known for their ability to â€Å"partner† with the HR function to facilitate strategy execution, administrative efficiency, employee commitment, and innovation. At such an early stage in the evolution of this area of scientific inquiry, it is not clear that HR reputation necessarily has only linear relationships with outcomes; such relationships could be non-linear in form. Perhaps there is an optimal level of reputation for the HR sub-unit, and that a ‘more is always better is not accurate. AUOTHERS CONTRIBUTION IN THIS ARTICLE The author has given a brief and precise history on the evolution of Human Resource Management as an important part of any organization from a record keeping employee towards a strategy building. As the number of personal policies continued to increase during the 19th century the importance of human resources management grew as well. Author have noted down that Competitive advantages, such as organizational culture, employee morale, and worker loyalty, fostered by HRM practices, are more difficult to imitate than manufacturing processes or cost management strategies. CRITICAL REVIEW What is interesting about this information? This article revolves around the evolution of Human Resource Management as the integral part of any organization to run smoothly. From the clerical job of just an employee record keeper to a strategic human asset manager this article has evaluated status of theory and research on HR reputation and effectiveness, and recommends directions for future work. The article starts of by looking at the beginning the change chain in the HR function progression. Born from the industrial relations movement, personnel management was first examined in 1920 by Tead and Metcalf. And During the industrial revolution, utilizing the scientific management of work (e.g., Taylor, 1895), companies began to quantify â€Å"†¦ the most efficient method for performing each work task, piece-rate systems of compensation to maximize employee work effort, and the selection and training of employees based on a thorough investigation of their talents and skills† Starting from the first look at HR function more seriously in 1920 it has moved from the century focusing on the years which hold importance towards the shaping of HR functions as we see them today. In 1925 Craig Charter adding to the chain proved that personnel management 1) became autonomous from the line managers and foremen, 2) turned an interest to psychology, 3)said a firm must be focused on leaders ability to â€Å"†¦effectively deal with employees and earn their loyalty and support† As in 1926 Lewisohn noted, the inherent labor problems that exist between workers and organizations were not a matter of capitalistic dialectic incompatibility, but, rather, incongruence between â€Å"†¦the organizational and administrative practices of management.† Thus, the core of a good organizational-employee relationship is recognizing and capitalizing on the mutual interests of maximum satisfaction and financial return (Filene, 1919). More work was done by Follett and Tead in 1929 and further by Kaufman in 1993 which said â€Å"To obtain cooperation, trust, loyalty, and hard work among employees, firms must attempt to simultaneously fulfill the goals of the worker and the organization† As the number of personal policies continued to increase, so did the importance of human resources management (HRM). As HRM grew, even more laws and regulations were passed in the 1950s and 1960s that promoted equal and fair treatment for all able workers (Russ, Galang, Ferris, 1998). However, it was not until the 1970s and 1980s, when U.S.-based companies realized that their technological processes were no longer a source of sustained competitive advantage (Pfeffer, 1994), that HRM was viewed as impacting on organizational performance. As explained by Barney (1991), in his resource-based view of the firm, in order to remain profitable in the long run, organizations must have a sustainable competitive advantage. As organizations placed more emphasis on the human factor, the field of human resource management was formed from a result of various scientific fields of inquiry such as industrial relations and psychology (Dulebohn et al., 1995). In the last 15 years, HRM has further justified its strategic importance, increasingly being viewed as a key resource organizations possess (Pfeffer, 1997), and an essential link in firms strategies (e.g., Arthur, 1994; Huselid, 1995). As human resources are managed appropriately by matching unique internal processes with environmental opportunities and needs, HRM has the potential to be a source of competitive advantage over other firms in the industry. In turn, HRM has been held more accountable to contributing meaningfully to firm performance. Because human resource management is now seen as an important factor in organizational performance and effectiveness, the power and, as a result, the reputation of HR also has increased. How does the author(s) support the hypothesis? Reputation of the firm in the market is based on the Human Resource as an asset to the firm. By quoting; The study of reputation in the organizational sciences largely has been focused on reputation at the corporate level. Organizational theorists have suggested that reputation is one of the few resources that can give firms a sustainable competitive advantage, because it is viewed as a non-tradable, non substitutable, non-imitable, resource that can be managed (Barney, 1991; Kothaa, Rajgopala, Rindova, 2001). Work done by Reed DeFillippi, 1990; Barney, 1991; Lado Wilson, 1994; Huselid 1995; Delaney and Huselid, 1996; Ulrich, 1997; Becker Huselid, 1998; Boxall in 2003; Lawler Mohrman in the year 2003;; Colbert 2004;; Hatch Dyer, 2004; Bowen Ostroff 2004 showed that personal reputation is a collectively agreed upon perception by others, and that reputation exists in a vacuum of imperfect information. When an audience is attempting to gather information regarding an individual (or organization), reputation is relied on to â€Å"fill in the blanks.† This is similar to corporate reputation theory in that personal reputation is based upon social norms, as opposed to market norms. Established upon the notion that reputation is related to social norms, current research suggests that to successfully acquire a reputation, an individual or organization must â€Å"stand out† from others in the field. Rindova, Pollock and Hayward (2006) reflected these beliefs in a recent piece dev oted to celebrity firms, acknowledging the relationship between reputation and celebrity. Suggesting that reputation reflects a predictive measure, they argued that both celebrity and reputation are based on others perception of some entity. Similarly the department level reputation depends on the production of the department individuals respectively and collectively different departments form the reputation of the organization as a whole. This view is supported by work done in 2005 by Roberts. Research in CEO celebrity has shown that a leaders reputation may change the reputation of the company (Hayward, Rindova, Pollock, 2004). Logically, the same process should apply to departments. If an HR department has a strong, powerful leader, the members of the department should feel an increase in power (Cialdini et al., 1976). Consistent support has been found for the HRM firm performance link in the literature, and with the continued development of theory, a richer understanding of how this relationship occurs can both advance the literature and facilitate improvement in practice. The theoretical underpinnings of the literature examining the relationship between HRM and firm performance have developed from; o Examining specific sets of HR practices. o Examining a match between HR practices and strategy o Examining the role of HRM in building and maintaining organizational resources and capabilities that contribute directly to a firms competitive advantage. The linkage between HRM and performance has be identified by the authors on the work done by Barney, 1991; Lado Wilson, 1994; Ulrich, 1997; Becker Huselid, 1998; Perry-Smith and Blum 2000; Boxall, 2003; Lawler Mohrman, 2003;, Ranft Lord, 2000, 2002; Collins Clark, 2003; Colbert, 2004; Hatch Dyer, 2004; Bowen Ostroff, 2004; Hatch and Dyer, 2004 HR reputation does have an impact on the larger overarching image of the organization. It is important to have an HR reputation of fairness, and to advertise this quality to important stakeholders. Although only one of the signals from the study affected share price, there may be other advantages of HR reputation at the firm level that are just as important, such as performance, labor costs, and employee turnover. This theory is based on the work done by Wright, Ferris, Hiller and Kroll in 1995; Hannon Milkovich in 1996 and Koys in 1997. What is the main aim of the article? The aim of the article is to provide a base line from the work done throughout the 19th century on the importance of the Human Resource Management as an integral part of the success of any firm. And to provide the readers with information from so many writers from 1920 to 2006 in the history of HR functions enabling the reader to suggest even more on the basis of research work done by them working in their environment any where in the world as human psychology is ever changing. Is the article timely? In the era of fast growing technology and change in almost every firm around the globe the need to develop and consider human resource as an integral part of any organizations success is the key as we read in so many journals and magazines such as â€Å"Times† and â€Å"Business Recorder† the stories of better human resource management success stories of successful companies, it does show that the importance of HR in any firm can not be ignored any more. This article was published in the year 2007 which is to me some what late because of the already changing trends in organization management. So I would have liked the article to be published before the beginning of this century as the boom in technology and industrial revolution has forced companies to review their HR policies and still there are many countries and firms around the world which lack the awareness of the importance of HR as an important mix in the success of their company. Is the methodology appropriate? Any weaknesses? The authors supported their perspective by using quotations and the research work done by over 20 people; from different research papers, articles, books and publications from the year 1920 to 2006. As they moved along the history starting from 1920 little indication of any work between 1930 and 1990 is given. Which I believe has left a big gap in the research work. Although some indication has been given that not much work was done between theses years to promote the importance of HR. Suggestions for future theory and research remains incomplete as many of the ideas merely seem to be repeated of what they have explained in the previous sections. For example: Just as celebrity status for a CEO or a firm has been shown to increase the breadth and volume of resources available to these actors, the popularity and celebrity of HR practices in an organization may increase the resources allocated to the HR function in those organizations. As resources increase, the power and influence of the HR function increase (Pfeffer, 1997). Research in CEO celebrity has shown that a leaders reputation may change the reputation of the company (Hayward, Rindova, Pollock, 2004). First paragraph quotation is taken from the work done by (Pfeffer, 1997) comes in the article in the first part. And the second written in the conclusion part from (Hayward, Rindova, Pollock, 2004). Both implying the same idea, supporting the conclusion by a repeating quote can affect the strength of the conc lusion itself. How does the article contribute to the field? Does it make an original contribution to the field? Human resource management has evolved into a strategic business partner linking organization goals to the internal and external customers of the company. This article contributes to the field of Human Resource Management vitally as organizations today are shifting and transforming into a global business and fostering local businesses. The importance to align the strategic goals with the HR efforts remains vital to the success. How does the article relate to the course? The course entitled management organizational policy is the study of how organizational strategies are made to run the processes and to make the firm as competitive as possible. This article throws light on Human Resource managements importance and how it thrived and evolved over the years. The most important asset in any firm today is considered to be the Human Resource and managing it properly is the key to success. Diagnosing Human Resource Management Practices: Increasingly, teamwork is seen as one of the main building blocks of successful organizations and much time, effort and resources are being invested in developing and managing cohesive teams (Katzenbach and Smith, 1994) The potential benefits of these investments are numerous and diverse. Perhaps the greatest is the achievement of organizational synergy where the output of the whole team becomes greater than the sum of the individual contributors and in so doing boosts the productivity and creativity of their units and functions. In addition, teamwork can benefit the company and its members in the following ways (Wilson, 1994): For many organizations, decentralization and delegation have been central features of their new management philosophy. Current thinking leads to the removal of as many levels as possible in an attempt to rid the organization of bureaucracy. This is expected to provide faster communication both up and down the organization with less chance of distortion. Another benefit of de layering is that individuals and groups can be more autonomous and responsive to customer needs (Wilson, 1994). Within the general policy guidelines of the organization, employees at the customer interface are empowered to make decisions that previously would have to be referred to higher levels. Finally, another application of the framework presented in this paper would be to investigate the relative influence of so-called best practices on different organizational outcomes. Many of the HRM practices identified in the recent literature seem like fads because they often are implemented without much understanding of the underlying principles of human behavior as well as a tendency to do whatever is popular at the moment, regardless of whether it makes sense in the specific setting or organization (Pfeffer, 1994). It is this trendiness that makes the task of measuring and demonstrating the effective contribution of HR policies and practices of organizations so difficult. Yet, for many line managers, it is the ability to show that HR adds value, not the rhetoric, that forms the basis of policy making and which gives HR its place on company boards. If the HR policies and practices are misaligned, or no attempt is made to provide line managers with a framework to assess practices on an ongoing basis, the credibility and influence of the HR function will suffer. The framework put forward in this article may help to avoid these mistakes. Linkage between Production and Effective HRM: The aspect of this model presenting the greatest practical difficulty is in specifying and measuring employee productivity. A couple of factors complicate this task. The one receiving the most attention in the past has been the problem of measuring productivity, and the more fundamental problem concerning the definition of productivity. At the simplest level, productivity can be defined in terms of quantity of output. Quality is also an important aspect of productivity, but it is the quantity definition of productivity that has received the most attention. The practical difficulty is that many measures of productivity (both quantity and particularly quality) are subjective measures, and thus not very amenable to simulation. Blue collar and routine clerical occupations are the ones most amenable to simulations at present, due to the relative simplicity involved in defining and measuring productivity. Due to the difficulty in determining acceptable objective performance measures, many organizations and studies rely upon subjective measures of productivity, but Bommer et al. [13] conclude that the measures are not interchangeable due to the low published correlations between objective and subjective performance measures. In practical terms, this means that the performance measures used by most organizations are useless for the purpose of simulation studies. The model just illustrated and discussed makes it clear just how complex the human resource aspects of production can be, yet complexity is not a sufficient reason to warrant inclusion in models of production systems. It is only important to include human resources in production system models if biased or deficient conclusions would result from ignoring human resources. The discussion will thus turn to some examples that will highlight the importance of considering carefully the human resource implications of policy decisions. Finally, a brief example of an informal test of the model is discussed. In the example, a post hoc evaluation of an actual example is performed, with simulation results that are consistent with the actual outcome. Leaders influence on organizational effectiveness: Most effects of human capital on firm performance are mediated by efficiency and innovative adaptation. Employees with strong skills and motivation are likely to be more productive, because they will do the work faster and smarter. Research shows that talented employees can improve efficiency and process reliability (e.g., Hatch Dyer, 2004; Ichniowski Shaw, 1999). Talented employees can also improve adaptation by helping to develop innovative products and services, by marketing them effectively, and by providing excellent customer service (Baer Frese, 2003; Pfeffer, 1998; Vermeulen, Jong, OShaughnessy, 2005). Because efficiency and adaptation mediate the effects of human resources and relations on firm performance, the importance of human resources and relations increases when talented, dedicated employees are needed to achieve optimal levels for these other two performance determinants. Human resources are more important when operations are labor intensive, the work is complex and difficult to learn, successful performance requires a high level of skill and experience, and it is difficult to recruit and train competent replacements for people who leave. Examples of organizations likely to have such conditions include hospitals, consulting firms, law firms, advertising agencies, research universities, and companies that rely on advanced manufacturing technology (Snell Dean, 1992). Human resources and relations are very important when the competitive strategy requires unique experts or celebrities to attract and retain customers (Grant, 1996; Pennings et al., 1998). If unusually talented employees are dissatisfied, they can often find jobs in competing companies or start their own company. Voluntary turnover of key employees can be important not only for the loss of unique skills, but also for the loss of their special external relationships with clients, suppliers, strategic partners, and others (Dess Shaw, 2001; Leana Van Buren, 1999; Pennings et al., 1998). Examples of organizations with high dependence on uniquely talented members include professional sports teams, advertising agencies, talent agencies, consulting companies, and investment banking firms. Human relations and resources are less important when much of the work can be done by unskilled workers, there are many people who are able and willing to do simple repetitive work for low wages and benefits, and there are few labor laws or other limitations on how employees are treated (as in many third-world countries). Likewise, human resources and relations are less important when an organization needs few employees except for the headquarters staff (e.g., a chemicals company with highly automated processes, an internet services company, or a â€Å"virtual organization† for which nearly all functions are outsourced). Leaders can improve the performance of an organization by influencing the performance determinants. One form of influence is the use of specific leadership behaviors in interactions with subordinates, peers, and outsiders. A second form of influence involves decisions about management programs and systems, and organizational structure. A third form of influence involves decisions about the competitive strategy for the organization. The three forms of influence must be used together in a consistent way for effective strategic leadership. The Changing Role of HR Managers in Europe: European HR management appears to be a field in transition; external forces such as increasing demands for quality improvement, privatization and completion of the Single European Market are important influences affecting the nature and scope of HRM across European countries. Competitive pressures have added to the challenges created by the changes in the occupational and demographic make-up of the workforce. What are the implications of these developments for the HR function across Europe? It is interesting to note that HR and non-HR managers attached a different degree of importance to the various skill and knowledge areas. In particular, HR managers rated organizational change skills, general business management, and knowledge of general Personnel HR techniques significantly higher in importance than non- HR managers. In contrast, non-HR managers attached more importance to consultation skills, improving employee motivation, and working in teams. These differences were most pronounced in the manufacturing sector. In fact, analysis of sector scores showed that respondents from manufacturing companies consistently rated the need for skills to improve employee motivation, teamwork, and cross-cultural communication higher than those employed in the service and public sectors. These growing demands put the HR manager in a difficult position. If (as the EAPM findings indicated) HR managers are often perceived as too administrative and traditional, line managers may hesitate to allow them to rotate out of the narrow confines of their function into areas where they can gain broader business experience. In addition, what remains unclear is what will happen to the potential role overload and growing expectations on someone in the role of a hardworking HR manager who cannot do all that is required. The senior HR executive in a Swiss company put it candidly: ‘It scares me to think that I might be expected to go out and run a business after twenty years in HR. Im afraid Id fail. HRM Practices in small firms: According to the RBV, human resources (as distinct from human resource activities) are viewed as a potential source of sustained competitive advantage because value, rareness, inimitability and non substitutability is derived from the inherent heterogeneity, ambiguity and complexity of these resources and the conditions under which they are deployed (Wright et al., 1994). Value derives from the unique contribution of skills, knowledge, and cognitive abilities (for example) to achieving firm goals. Research shows that training is an important HRM issue for many small firms, but formal training is less likely to be provided in these firms (Storey, 2004). Storey and Westhead (1997) provide two explanations for this. First, training is less likely to occur in small firms because of ‘ignorance of the benefit it can bring and second because the cost is too high for small firms (Storey, 2004; Storey Westhead, 1997). Importance of Corporate image and reputation: From the perspective of marketing, the impact of corporate image and reputation on consumer behavior is well recognized in spite of the lack of empirical evidence. Numerous authors assert that a good corporate image or reputation helps to increase the firms sales and its market share (Shapiro, 1982), and to establish and maintain a loyal relationship with customers (Andreassen and Lindestad, 1998; Robertson, 1993; Yoon et al., 1993). How is corporate image related to corporate reputation? A review of the past research in the field shows little empirical results except for some general statements. For example, Porter (1985) suggests that a good reputation may help a pioneer rebuilding an innovative image in the industry, while Franklin (1984) proposes that corporate reputation is a global and final outcome of the process of building a corporate image. Impact of Human Resource Management on Organizational Performance: Throughout the 1980s there were a number of variations along this theme of strategic fit (Lengnick-Hall and Lengnick-Hall, 1988). One of the clearest expositions and developments of this theme was given by Schuler and Jackson (1987). In their model, HRM is seen as a menu of strategic choices to be made by HR executives intended to promote the most effective role behaviors that are consistent with the organization strategy and are aligned with each other. The models starting points are the generic competitive strategies outlined by Porter (1980) i.e. quality enhancement, innovation and cost leadership or reduction. For example, Kravetz (1988) conducted a survey of 150 Forbes 500 companies to examine the relationship between Human Resource Progressiveness (HRP) and a variety of financial measures drawn from Standard Poors Compustat Services, such as five-year growth in sales, five-year growth in profits, and P-E ratio for the latest twelve months. HRP was measured by asking the vice presidents of human resources of each company in the survey to complete a fifty-one item questionnaire on human resource policies and practices in the areas of communication, management style, career development, performance management, working hours and employee participation. Finally, it is clear the contribution of even highly skilled and motivated employees will be limited if jobs are programmed or structured in such a way that employees do not get the opportunity to use their skills and abilities to improve their performance. Consequently, HRM practices can also create competitive advantage through provision of organizational structures, leadership and work conditions that encourage initiative and creativity among employees and allow them to find ways to improve how their jobs are performed. Delegation, cross-functional teamwork and participative management are examples of such conditions. FINAL CONCLUSION With the increasing demands of todays business environment, company executives are placing more pressure on the human resource function to perform better, smarter, faster, and cheaper, while providing more value added services. Now, in addition to supporting workforce requirements and general business initiatives, the activities of HR are increasingly focused on managing the broader human capital capabilities required to achieve and sustain a competitive advantage (e.g., succession planning, leadership development, performance management, cultural transformation).In order to accommodate this shift in focus, HR needs to rapidly align their priorities and resources to provide the wider range of expertise necessary. References: How leaders influence organizational effectiveness Gary Yukl Management Department, University at Albany, Albany, NY 12222, USA. The Leadership Quarterly 19 (2008) 708-722 Hatch, W. N., Dyer, H. J. (2004). Human capital and learning as a source of sustainable competitive advantage. Strategic Management Journal, 25, 1155−1178. Ichniowski, C., Shaw, K. (1999). The effect of human resource management systems on economic performance: an international comparison of U.S. and Japanese plants. . Management Science, 45(5), 704−721. Baer, M., Frese, M. (2003). Innovation is not enough: climates for initiative and psychological safety, process innovations, and firm performance. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 24, 45−68. Pfeffer, J. (1998). The human equation. Boston: Harvard Business School. Vermeulen, A. M. P., Jong, D. P. J. J., O, Shaughnessy, K. C. (2005). Identifying key determinants for new produ

Morals and Values in The Lottery by Shirley Jackson Essay -- The Lotter

Morals and Values in The Lottery by Shirley Jackson In Shirley Jackson's, "The Lottery", human morals and values are thrown away all for the pride of winning something. What is it that they really win? When you win the lottery in this story, you actually win death by stoning. Isn't that ironic, people actually being competitive and getting excited about death in public. What morals or values do these people really have, and how are they different from what common society is thought today? The first to gather in the square on the day of the lottery are the children. The children, sweet, innocent children who do not know any better and are only taking part in this cruelty because they view it as a fun game. Then the adults begin to gather in the square. They are older and wiser, knowing what is to become of that one invididual whose name is drawn. They know of the agony that awaits them, but they have been taught to believe in it, sot ehy continue to participate even if it means they are the chosen one. These adults are so caught up in tradition that they do not s...

The History of Rollerblades :: essays research papers fc

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Roller skating is said to have been born during the summer months when ice was not available. The first documented inventor of roller skates was John Joseph Merlin who was born September 17, 1735, in the city of Huys, Belgium. Merlin was well known for his abilities for making musical instruments and other interesting mechanical gadgets. Through various incarnations, roller skates strove to replicate the streamlined speed and maneuverability of ice skates, but without ball bearings or shock-absorbent wheels it would take 200 years before that dream was achieved. Even as late as 1960, the Chicago Skate Company attempted to market an inline skate that looked much like today's skate, but it did not offer sufficient comfort, stability or a reliable brake (Zaidman 1). Although the Chicago Skate Company’s attempt of the inline skate was not successful, it did play a pivotal role in the molding of what is now known as inline skating. In 1980, two hockey-playing Minnesota Olson brothers discovered the in-line skate that the Chicago Skate Company had manufactured while rummaging through a sporting goods store and decided that this design would make an ideal off-season hockey-training tool. They refined the skate and began assembling the first Rollerblade skates in the basement of their parents' Minneapolis home. Working in their garage, they modified the design to add plastic wheels, a molded boot shell, and a tow brake. The Olsen brothers sold their product, which they dubbed â€Å"Rollerblade Skate,† out of the back of their truck to off-season hockey player and skiers (Kerin 5). It was that same year, when they founded the company that would become Rollerblade ® (Rollerblade.com). In 1984, Minneapolis businessman Bob Naegele, Jr. purchased Olson's fledgling company, which eventually became Rollerblade, Inc. Though not the first company to manufacture inline skates, Rollerblade, by offering a comfortable skate with a reliable and easy-to-implement brake, took inline skating out of the exclusive domain of hockey players and introduced millions to the sport that now has the whole world on a roll (Zaidman 1). The History of Rollerblades :: essays research papers fc   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Roller skating is said to have been born during the summer months when ice was not available. The first documented inventor of roller skates was John Joseph Merlin who was born September 17, 1735, in the city of Huys, Belgium. Merlin was well known for his abilities for making musical instruments and other interesting mechanical gadgets. Through various incarnations, roller skates strove to replicate the streamlined speed and maneuverability of ice skates, but without ball bearings or shock-absorbent wheels it would take 200 years before that dream was achieved. Even as late as 1960, the Chicago Skate Company attempted to market an inline skate that looked much like today's skate, but it did not offer sufficient comfort, stability or a reliable brake (Zaidman 1). Although the Chicago Skate Company’s attempt of the inline skate was not successful, it did play a pivotal role in the molding of what is now known as inline skating. In 1980, two hockey-playing Minnesota Olson brothers discovered the in-line skate that the Chicago Skate Company had manufactured while rummaging through a sporting goods store and decided that this design would make an ideal off-season hockey-training tool. They refined the skate and began assembling the first Rollerblade skates in the basement of their parents' Minneapolis home. Working in their garage, they modified the design to add plastic wheels, a molded boot shell, and a tow brake. The Olsen brothers sold their product, which they dubbed â€Å"Rollerblade Skate,† out of the back of their truck to off-season hockey player and skiers (Kerin 5). It was that same year, when they founded the company that would become Rollerblade ® (Rollerblade.com). In 1984, Minneapolis businessman Bob Naegele, Jr. purchased Olson's fledgling company, which eventually became Rollerblade, Inc. Though not the first company to manufacture inline skates, Rollerblade, by offering a comfortable skate with a reliable and easy-to-implement brake, took inline skating out of the exclusive domain of hockey players and introduced millions to the sport that now has the whole world on a roll (Zaidman 1).

Waiting for the Bus - Original Writing :: Papers

Waiting for the Bus - Original Writing It was about 8 o'clock in the evening, it was been raining for a very long time; the atmosphere around is so miserable; the air is so heavy as if it's filled with lead and the surroundings are dull and lifeless as if it was the darkest corner on earth. A middle aged man with tattoos all over his body smoking a cigar is being interviewed by a female doctor in a psychiatric hospital. While preparing the apparatus, the young lady tells him about the procedure:" This conversation will be recorded, as many others before it, do you understand Peter? Would you like to tell me about your dreams?" In this depressing room, with dull lights, you can only see the still outline of the two people, as if they are mysterious statues sat there staring at each other. After a while the man takes a deep breath and begins to talk."Every night for all the three months that I have been kept here, I have had the same bizarre dream, the screams of which have been waking everyone up at night". There was a pause during which the young psychiatrist was looking desperately into the madman's eyes and him looking away as if ashamed of something. "My dreams get longer each night"- whispered the patient in a distressed voice. The conversation was ended there and then; Peter never said a word until his next meeting with the psychiatrist. Every time they met their chat got them one step closer to the patient's dream. Spring was approaching; the weather gradually began to change from cold and rainy to sunny and cheerful. These were the first few days it has been like this. It was like a new start for Peter; the weather was divine and precious, he could not get enough of it, it seemed like it gave him power and superiority over every one else. As the days grew longer, so did the conversations the psychiatrist and the man had. It was an ordinary day and as usual Peter was having a 5 o'clock

Esssential of Negotiation

Helsinki School of Economics Advanced Negotiation Practices Course Book Summary Assignment Essentials of Negotiation Lewicki, Roy J. , David M. Saunders, and John W. Minton. 2001. Essentials of Negotiation: 2nd Edition. New York: McGraw-Hill/Irwin Reviewed by Mohammad Moshtari February 2008 Book Summary Assignment Essentials of Negotiation Book Introduction This book represents authors’ response to faculty who wanted a briefer version of the longer text, Negotiation. The objective of this shorter volume is to provide the reader with the core concepts negotiation in a more succinct version. The book is organized into 9 chapters. The first four chapters introduce the reader to ? Negotiation Fundamentals?. The first chapter introduces the field of negotiation and conflict management, describes the basic problem of interdependence with other people, and briefly explores the problems of managing that interdependence. The second chapter introduces the concept of ? framing? or how parties come to decide what a negotiation is all about, and how parties need to plan for an upcoming negotiation. Chapter 3 and 4 then present the two core approaches to negotiations: the basic dynamics of competitive (win-loss) bargaining (chapter 3) and the basic dynamics of integrative (win-win) negotiation (chapter 4). The next two chapters present two key sub processes of negotiation: cognition and communication, and power and persuasion. In chapter 5, basic processes of cognition and communication in negotiation is reviewed, especially communication dynamics is examined as well as a number of common cognition and judgment biases made by negotiators. In chapter 6, authors looked at the tools negotiators can use to pressure the other side, using the tools of persuasion and power to get the other to change his or her perspective or give in to our arguments. The next two chapters review two key context elements of negotiation. In chapter 7, authors examined the ethical context and standards that surround negotiation and create unique challenges for negotiators in deciding how fully and completely they are going to disclose their bargaining positions. In chapter 8, authors attempted to clarify how national cultures around the world shape the diverse ways parties approach negotiations. The last chapter emphasizes strategies that can be used by the parties to resolve breakdowns in the negotiation process. Chapter 9 explores the techniques that negotiators can use on their own to get negotiations back on track. Authors made some of related materials (secondary chapters) accessible on the World Wide Web (at www. mhhe. com/business/managment/lewicki) including social context of negotiation, multiparty negotiations or managing difficult negotiations: theirs party approaches. The organization of the book also parallels more closely the organization of a companion volume, Negotiation: Readings, Exercises and Cases by Roy J. Lewicki. , David M. Saunders, and John W. Minton. Contents in Brief ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? The nature of negotiation Negotiations: framing, strategizing, and planning Strategy and tactics of distributive negotiation Strategy and tactics of integrative negotiation Communication, perception and cognitive biases Finding and using negotiation leverage Ethics in negotiation Global negotiation Managing difficult negotiations: individual approaches Book Summary Assignment Essentials of Negotiation Chapter 1: The nature of negotiation The structure and processes of negotiation are fundamentally the same at personal level as they are at the diplomatic and corporate level. Negotiations occur for two reasons: (1) to create something new that neither party could do on his or her own, (2) to resolve a problem or dispute between the parties. There are sev eral characteristics common to all negotiation situations: (1) there are two or ore parties, (2) there is a conflict of interest between them, (3) The parties negotiate duo to get a better deal (4) the parties, at least for a moment prefer to search for agreement, (5) when they negotiate they expect to give and take, (6) successful negotiation involves the management of intangibles (such as need to look good) as well as resolving the tangibles (such as the terms of agreement) In negotiations both parties need each other. This situation of mutual dependency is called interdependence. Interdependent relationships are characterized by interlocking goals; the parties need each other to accomplish their goals. The structure of the interdependence (wind-lose or win-win), determines the range of possible outcomes of the negotiation and suggests the appropriate strategies and tactics that the negotiators should use. Interdependent relationships are complex. Both parties know that they can influence the other’s outcomes and their outcomes in turn be influenced by the other. This mutual adjustment continues throughout the negotiation as both parties act to influence the other. Making and interpreting concessions is no easy work, especially when there is little trust between negotiations. The search for an optimal solution through the processes of giving information and making concessions is greatly aided by trust and a belief that you are being treated honesty and fairly. Two efforts in negotiation help to create such trust and belief: perceptions of outcomes that attempts to change a party’s estimation of the perceived importance of something and perception of the process may help convey images of equity, fairness and reciprocity in proposals and concessions. One potential consequence of interdependent relationship is conflict that can be duo to the highly divergent needs of the two parties, a misunderstanding that occurs between two people, or some other intangible factors. One way to classify conflicts is by level, and four levels of conflicts are commonly identified: intrapersonal conflict, interpersonal conflict, intra-group conflict, inter-group conflict. Conflict may be destructive or productive, so the objective is not to eliminate conflict but to learn how to manage it so that the destructive elements are controlled while the productive aspects are enjoyed. Negotiation is a strategy for productively managing conflict. Many approaches to managing conflict have been suggested. The below two dimensional framework is represented as the dual concerns model. The model postulates that individuals in conflict have two independent levels of concern: concern about their own outcomes and concern about the other’s outcomes. As mentioned in the figure, there are five major Problem Yielding strategies for conflict management. Each strategy has its Solving advantages and disadvantages and is more or less appropriate given the type of conflict and situation in which (compromising) the dispute occurs. Thus, conflict theory and research have moved toward a contingency approach advocating that the Inaction Contending strategy selected should be based on the objectives of the parties and the nature of their dispute. Two major mechanisms for resolving conflicts-third parties and Concern about own outcomes conflict management systems- extend above and beyond the strategies of the parties themselves. Concern about others’ utcomes 3 Book Summary Assignment Essentials of Negotiation Chapter 2: Negotiations: framing, strategizing, and planning In this chapter, authors discuss what negotiators should do before sitting down at the table: framing, strategizing, and planning. Framing is the means by which the parties in a negotiation define the problem. They mention that there are three ways to understand frames: as cognitive heuristics, at categories of experience, and as a process of issue development. In continuation, they try to introduce the negotiator to the power and prevalence of frames via: different types of frames, how certain frames may be invoked or ignored in a given situation, the consequences of framing a conflict in a particular way and the approaches that negotiators can use to manage frames more effectively. Understanding frames- which means understanding how parties define the key issues and how conversations can shift and transform those issues- is the first step in effective planning. After framing, negotiators must anticipate what they want to achieve in a negotiation and must prepare for these events in advance. The preparation must include attention to substantive items including goals, goal priorities, and multi-goal packages as well as procedural concerns dealing with agendas and bargaining histories. the choice of goals and frames are strongly interactive and the existence of one will rapidly produce evidence of other. Afterwards negotiators move to the third element in the sequence: selecting and developing a strategy. According to below suggested model, negotiators have some choices of a negotiation that is reflected in the answers to two simple questions: how much concern does the actor have for achieving the substantive outcomes at stake in this Substantive outcome important? negotiation and how much concern does the Yes No negotiator have for the current and future quality of relationship with the other party. Yes Collaboration Accommodation In the last part of chapter, authors explain the importance of planning. hile success in negotiation is affected by how one plays the game, the most important step for success is No Competition Avoidance how to one gets ready for the game. effective planning also hard work on a number of specific steps: ? Defining issues ? Assembling issues and defining the bargaining mix ? Defining interests ? Consulting with others ? Identifying limits ? Setting targets ? Developing supporting arguments ? Analyzing the other party Frames, goals, strategies and stages set the background for an effective planning process. If the negotiator is able to consider and evaluate each of these factors, the negotiator will know what he or she wants and will have a clear sense of direction on how to proceed. The sense of direction, and the confidence derived from it will be the single most important factor in achieving a desired negotiation outcome. Rational choice important 4 Book Summary Assignment Essentials of Negotiation Chapter 3: Strategy and tactics of distributive negotiation In a distributive bargaining situation, the goals of one party are usually in fundamental and direct conflict with the goals of the other party. Resources are fixed and each party will use a set of strategies to maximize their share of resources to be obtained. While distributive strategies are useful, they can also be counterproductive and costly. Often they cause the negotiating parties to focus so much on their differences that they ignore what they have in common. These negative effects notwithstanding, distributive bargaining strategies are quite useful when a negotiator wants to maximize the value obtained in a single deal and when the relationship with the other party is not important. Both parties to a negotiation should establish their starting, target and resistance points before beginning a negotiation. Starting points are usually in the opening statements each party makes. The target point is usually learned or inferred as negotiations get under way. The resistance point, the point beyond which a person will not go and would rather break off negotiations. The spread between the resistance points, called bargaining range, settlement range or zone of potential agreement, is particularly important. In this area the actual bargaining takes place, for anything outside these point will be summarily rejected by one of the two negotiators. It is rare that a negotiation includes only one item; more typically there is a set of items, referred to as a bargaining mix. Each item in a bargaining mix can have opening, target and resistance points. The bargaining mix may provide opportunities for bundling issues together, logrolling or displaying mutually concessionary behavior. Negotiators by employing strategies attempt to influence each other perceptions of what is possible through the exchange of information and persuasion. Regardless of the general strategy taken, two tasks are important in all distributive bargaining situations: discovering the other party’s resistance point and influencing the other party’s resistance point. The negotiator’s basic goal is to reach a final settlement as close to the other party’s resistance point as possible. Four tactical tasks are suggested for a negotiator in a distributive bargaining: (1) to asses the other party’s outcome values and the costs of terminating negotiations, (2) to manage the other party’s impressions of the negotiator’s outcome values, (3) to modify the other party’s perception of his or her own outcome values, and (4) to manipulate the actual costs of delaying or aborting negotiations. The other decision to be made at the outset of distributive bargaining concerns the stance to adopt during negotiations. A reasonable bargaining position is usually coupled with a friendly stance and an extreme position is usually couple ith a tougher, more competitive stance. A key concept in creating a bargaining position is that of commitment. The purpose of a commitment is to remove ambiguity about the actor’s intended course of action. There are several ways to create a commitment: public pronouncement, link with an outside ally, increase the promi nence of demands, reinforce the treat or promise. There are a set of hardball tactics to beat the other party. Such tactics are designed to pressure targeted parties to do things they would not otherwise do, and their presence usually disguises the user’s adherence to a decidedly distributive bargaining approach. Some of them are: good guy/bad guy, highball/lowball, bogey, the nibble, chicken, intimidation, aggressive behavior, snow job. The authors suggested three ways for responding to typical hardball tactics, including ignore them, discuss them and respond in kind. 5 Book Summary Assignment Essentials of Negotiation Chapter 4: Strategy and tactics of integrative negotiation In many negotiations there need not be winners and losers; all parties can be winner. In integrative negotiation- variously known as cooperative, collaborative, win-win, or problem solving- the goals of the parties are not mutually exclusive. The fundamental structure of an integrative negotiation situation is such that it allows both sides to achieve their objectives. Integrative negotiation requires a process fundamentally different from that of distributive negotiation. Those wishing to achieve integrative results find that they must manage both the context and the process of the negotiation in order to gain the willing cooperation and commitment of all parties. The following processes tend to be central to achieving almost all integrative agreements: ? creating a free flow of information ? ttempting to understand the other negotiator’s real needs and objectives ? emphasizing the commonalities between the parties and minimizing the difference ? searching for solutions that meet the goals and objectives of both sides There are four major steps in the integrative negotiation process: 1. Identifying and defining the problem, ? define the problem in a way that is mutually acceptable to both sides ? keep the problem statement clean and simple ? state the problem as a goal and identify the obstacles to attaining this goal ? epersonalize the problem ? separate the problem definition from the search for solution 2. understanding the problem and bringing interests and needs to the surface (focusing on interests will allow the parties to move beyond opening positions and demands to determine what the parties really want, what needs truly must be satisfied) 3. generating alternative solutions to the problem (tactics such as expand the pie, logroll, nonspecific compensation, cut the costs for compliance, find a bridge solution 4. Evaluating those alternatives and selecting among them ? narrow the range of solution options ? agree to the criteria in advance of evaluating options ? evaluate solutions on the basis of quality and acceptability ? be willing to justify personal preferences ? be alert to the influence of intangibles in selecting options ? use subgroups to evaluate complex issues ? take time out to cool off ? explore different ways to logroll ? keep decisions tentative and conditional until all aspects of the final proposals are complete ? inimize formality and record keeping until final agreements are closed Authors identified seven fundamental preconditions for successful integrative negotiation: some form of shared or common goal, faith in one’s own ability to solve problems, a belief in the validity and importance of the other’s position, the motivation and commitment to work together, trust in the opposing negotiator, the ability to accurately exchange information in spite of confl ict conditions, and an understanding of how the process works. 6 Book Summary Assignment Essentials of Negotiation Chapter 5: Communication, perception and cognitive biases Communication is at the heart of the negotiating process. This chapter focuses on the processes by which negotiators communicate their own interests, positions, and goals and in turn make sense of those of the other party and of the negotiation as a whole. Weather the intent is to command and compel, sell, persuade or gain commitment, how parties communicate in negotiation would seem to depend on the ability of the speaker to encode the thoughts properly as well as on the ability of the listener to understand and decode the intended messages. There are two critical sub-processes of communication: perception and cognition. ? Perception is defined as the process of screening, selecting and interpreting stimuli so that they have meaning to the individual. The complexity of environments makes it impossible to process all of the available information, so perception becomes selective, focusing on some stimuli while turning out others. As a result people have several shortcuts in their perceptual systems that allow them to process information more readily. Unfortunately these shortcuts come with cost-perceptual errors such as stereotyping, halo effects, selective perception or projectionswhich typically occur without people being aware that they are happening. Stimulus Attention Recognition Translation Behavior Perception ? Rather than being perfect processors of information, negotiators have a tendency to make systematic errors when they process information. These errors, labeled cognitive biases, tend to impede negotiator performance: the irrational escalation of commitment, mythical fixed pie belief, the process f anchoring and adjustment, issue and problem framing, negotiators overconfidence, the winner’s curse, self-serving biases, ignoring others’ cognitions, the law of small numbers and reactive devaluation. Failures and distortions in perception, cognition and communication are the most dominant contributors to breakdowns and failures in negotiations. Three main techniques have been proposed for improving communic ation in negotiation: the use of questions, listening and role reversal. 7 Book Summary Assignment Essentials of Negotiation Chapter 6: Finding and using negotiation leverage In this chapter, the authors focus on leverage in negotiation that means the tools negotiators can use to give themselves an advantage or increase the probability of achieving their own objectives. Leverage is often used synonymously with power. Authors explain three major sources of power: information and expertise, control over resources, and location in an organizational structure and then point to the process for using power as an attempt to change the other’s position, view or perspective. During negotiations, actors frequently need to convince each other, influence the other party’s positions, perceptions and opinions and for doing these they employ a group of tactics that are called persuasion. Authors consider four key elements of persuasion: ways in which sources of information can be powerful, ways in which messages can be structured to be more powerful, ways in which targets of persuasion can enhance or reduce their power and ways in which the elements in social context can exert indirect influence on the target. There are some ways in which to think about the key factors in the persuasion/ leverage process. One of them is shown in below figure. Message factors Resultant attitudes (positions) Initial attitudes (positions) ? Message content ? Message Structure ? Persuasive style Source factor ? Credibility ? Attractiveness Target factors ? attending to the other ? Resisting the other’s arguments Context factor Reciprocity, Commitment, Social proof, Use of reward and punishment, Scarcity Central Route Peripheral Route ? ? ? ? Message factors or ways in which he content of the message can be structured and presented to enhance its effectiveness Source factors or ways in which the sender of the message can enhance his or her credibility and attractiveness in order to make the message more believable or more friendly Receiver factors or ways in which the receiver of the message can either shape and direct what the sender is communicating or intellectually resist the persuasive effects of the message Context factors or elements inherent in the social structure (such as the relationship between the parties, the setting in which the message is sent or the amount time taken to communicate the message) that can determine whether a message is more or less likely to be received and complied with. There are at least three major things that you as the listener can do to resist the other’s influence efforts: have a best alternative to a negotiated agreement (BATNA), make a public commitment (or get the other pa rty to make one) and inoculate yourself against the other’s persuasive message. 8 Book Summary Assignment Essentials of Negotiation Chapter 7: Ethics in negotiation In this chapter authors explored the question of whether there are or should be accepted ethical standards for behavior in negotiation. Ethics are broadly applied social standards for what is right or wrong in a particular situation or a process for setting those standards. Ethics proceed from particular philosophies, which purport to (a) define the nature of the world in which we live and (b) prescribe rules for living together. The authors present a model to help explain how a negotiator decides whether to employ one or more deceptive tactics. Intentions and motives for using deceptive tactics Consequences: 1. Impact of tactic: does it work? 2. Self-evaluation 3. Feedback and reaction from other negotiator, constituency and audiences Influence Situation Identification of range of influence tactics Selection and use of a deceptive tactic Explanation and Justification Deception and disguise may take several forms in negotiation as follows: misrepresentation of one’s position to another party, bluffing, falsification (introduction of factually erroneous information), deception (collection of true and/or untrue arguments that leads the other party to the wrong conclusion) and selective disclosure or misrepresentation to constituencies. The authors predicted that (1) when motivated to be competitive and when expecting the other to be competitive the negotiator would see the marginally ethical tactics as appropriate and (2) when both parties were competitively motivated they would exhibit the greatest tendency to employ marginally ethical tactics. From the negotiator’s perspective the primary motivation to use a deceptive tactic is to gain a temporary power advantage. Using these tactics then produces consequences: the tactic may work (produce desired results) or not work; people evaluate their own use of the tactics( asking themselves if they were satisfied with the results, and if using the tactic was personally acceptable) and people also may receive evaluative comments from the other negotiator from constituencies and from audiences. Those evaluative comments may serve to increase or decrease the use of similar tactics in the future. If using the tactic allows negotiators to attain rewarding outcomes that would be unavailable to them if they behaved ethically and if the unethical conduct is not punished by others the frequency of unethical conduct is likely to increase because the negotiator believes he or she can get away with it. Negotiators frequently overlook the fact that although unethical or expedient tactics may get them what they want in the short run these same tactics typically lead to diminished effectiveness in the long term. (Consequences of these tactics on the negotiator’s reputation and trustworthiness, other party retaliation and revenge) If negotiators think the other party is using deceptive tactics he/she can do the following acts: Ask probing questions and recognize the tactic. 9 Book Summary Assignment Essentials of Negotiation Chapter 8: Global negotiation In this chapter authors examined various aspects of a growing field of negotiation that explores the complexities of negotiating across borders. Negotiators from different cultures (countries) use different negotiation strategies and communication patterns when negotiating intra-culturally than when negotiating cross-culturally. Two overall contexts have an influence on cross border negotiations: the environmental context, includes forces in the environment that are beyond the control of either party but that influence the negotiations, and immediate context, includes factors over which the negotiators have influence and some measure of control. To know more cultures, Hofstede suggested that there are four important dimensions that can be used to describe cultural differences: power distance, individualism/collectivism, masculinity/femininity and uncertainty avoidance. Foster suggests that culture can influence global negations in several ways, including: the definition of negotiation, the selection of negotiators, protocol, communication, time, risk propensity, groups versus individuals and the nature of agreements. The chapter concludes with a discussion of how to manage cultural differences when negotiating across borders. Weiss presented the options that people have when negotiating with someone from other culture. According to him, when choosing a strategy, negotiators should be aware of their own and the other party’s cultures in general, understand the specific factors in the current relationship, and predict or try to influence the other party’s approach. His suggested responsive strategies may be arranged into three groups, base on familiarity (low, moderate, high) that a negotiator has with the other party’s culture. Within each group there are some strategies that the negotiator may use individually (unilateral strategies) and others that involve the participation of the other party (joint strategies). Low familiarity ? Employ agents or advisors (unilateral Strategy) ? bring in a mediator ? Induce the other party to use your approach Moderate familiarity ? Adapt to the other party’s approach ? Coordinate adjustment High familiarity ? Embrace the other party’s approach ? Improvise an approach ? Effect symphony 10 Book Summary Assignment Essentials of Negotiation Chapter 9: Managing difficult negotiations: individual approaches Through any number of different avenues – breakdowns in communication, escalation of anger and mistrust, polarization of positions and refusal to compromise, the issuance of ultimatums or simply the inability to invent options that are satisfactory to both sides – negotiations often hit an impasse. Productive dialogue stops. The parties may continue talking but the communication is usually characterized by trying to sell or force one’s own position, talking about other’s unreasonable position and uncooperative behavior or both. This chapter reviewed actions that the parties can take to return to a productive dialogue. In general there are five major conflict reduction strategies that can be applied in contentious situations: 1. Reducing tension and managing the de-escalation of hostility (via methods such as tension release, acknowledgment of the other’s feelings (active listening), separating the parties, synchronized de-escalation) 2. Enhancing communication, particularly improving each party’s understanding of the other’s perspective (via methods such as role reversal or imaging) 3. Controlling the number and size of issues in the discussion ? Reduce the number of parties on each side ? control the number of substantive issues involved ? state issues in concrete terms rather than as general principles ? restrict the precedents involved, both procedural and substantive ? search for ways to fractionate the big issues ? depersonalize issues: separate them from the parties advocating them 4. Establishing a common ground on which the parties can find a basis for agreement (via methods such as determining super ordinate goals, clarifying common enemies, agreement on the rules and procedures) 5. Enhancing the desirability of the options and alternatives that each party presents to the other (give the other party a â€Å"yes-able† proposal, ask for a different decision, sweeten the offer rather than intensify the threat, use legitimacy or objective criteria to evaluate solutions) The order of above steps is the one most frequently used by third parties in resolving disputes and hence we believe it also will be the most effective if employed by negotiators themselves. If the conflict cannot be controlled effectively, third-party intervention may become necessary. 11